Influencers of Spiritual Formation (6)
Globalisation and Glocalisation
The effects of globalization and glocalisation a powerful effect on the Malaysian church. Malaysia, as one of the economic Tigers is deeply involved in world trade. The technological advances in telecommunications and the Internet have created a smaller interconnected world. Malaysia is a member of the World Trade Organisation which means open borders for trade and professional services. Whether we like it or not, Malaysia is involved in the globalisation process. While there is no agreed definition of globalisation[1], globalisation is often understood to have the following characteristics: increasing speed in communication, the interconnected world become smaller, the blurring of national borders, reciprocity, manageable risk, and presence of trust (Beyon and Dunkerley 2000, 5-6).
The former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr Mahathir advises, “The challenge for Asia is not how to manage the present concept of globalisation but to make it work and to benefit from it. The challenge for Asia is to influence the thinking on globalisation, to reshape it, to reduce the chances of it going awry and in the process destroying economies and countries.” (Mohamad 2002, 16). The Malaysian church is should also take this advice to heart. The church should take up the challenges of globalisation and reshape it for the Kingdom of God.
There are many challenges of globalisation that provides the context that influences the societal corporate spiritual formation. This is the null curriculum of globalisation. Michael Warren, professor of religious education in the department of Theology at St. John’s University in Jamaica mentions three: “culture in the formation of perception, language in the formation of thought and hegemony in the formation of consciousness.” (Warren 1987). This highlights the insidious influence of globalisation. In this discussion, I shall limit it to two: McDonaldisation and Disneyisation.
Mark Chan, resident theologian for Eagles Communications, Singapore comments, “A Mcdonaldized ethos is marked by the dictates of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control does not value individuality, creativity, deliberation or attention to details. It is speed, proficiency, and the attainment of objectified goals that count.” (Chan 2002, 120). The characteristics of McDonaldization is derived from the working of the fast food chain; efficiency means simplified products, calculability means quantifiable products and services, predictability means standardisation of product and services, and control means replacement of human by technology.
McDonaldisation has arrived on our shores and even in our churches. In the name of efficiency, we have begun to simplify our sermons and church services. Some people call it “dumbing down”(Dawn 1995). Important facts are delivered in short sound bites. We have begun to play the number games in marking church attendance and giving. That is calculability. Predictability means standardising our church programs so that it is easily reproducible and by control, we look towards technology to solve our church problems. That’s why imported packaged education program produced by a megachurch in the United States is so attractive because it has been McDonaldised.
Disneyisation is the worldwide control of the arts, entertainment, media so that a particular worldview, values and filtered knowledge are disseminated. It exports escapism, American culture, products, and a delusion that happiness can be bought. Disneyisation has united the world into one culture that regards human beings as consumers. Christians are taught to be consumers of church services and other spiritual things rather than to be involved as participants. Through the media, arts, movies, and music, we are exposed to a delusion of a worldly worldview. The consumer worldview worship Mammon as god.
There is some similarity in Mark Chan’s disneyization and Tom Sine’s McWorld. Tom Sine notes that “McWorld is driven by aspirations and values of modernity and is aggressively at work creating a one-world consumer culture in which shopping mall is replacing the church as the centre of religious devotion, and all of life is reduced to a commodity.” (Sine 1999, 52). Both Chan and Sine discern that consumerism will be a major influence on Christians in the 21st century.
John Carpenter, former lecturer at Singapore Bible College thinks that Chinese Christians will be at greater risk,
“Confucianism has a “legalistic” wing that provides strong virtues than can help Asian societies economically progress just as Calvinism helped parts of Western society progress. Unfortunately, it also has a soft, humanistic wing that assumes “man is the measure of all things.” One wing encourages capitalism. The other wing will, by emphasizing the goodness of human nature, encourage consumerism. If Christians in Asia are going to confront consumerism, they will have to uproot all such tendencies to human-centered religion and ideology.” (Carpenter 2002,109).
Edmund Chan, a pastor in Singapore sums up the challenge of globalisation to the church into three crises; that of identity, of truth, and of authority (Chan 2002). In this globalised interconnected world, it is easy to lose our self identity and take on the identity of the world culture. In consumerism and pragmatism, it is not what is true but what work counts. Hence, there is a tendency to redefine the biblical teaching in terms of efficiency and functionality. In the increasing tendency towards individualism and self-development, there is loss of the understanding of authority, both within and without the church.
Spiritual formation should focus on helping Asian Christians to uproot the materialistic and pragmatic nature of their culture and society.
Bibliography
Beyon, J. and D. Dunkerley, Eds. (2000). Globalization-The Reader. London, The Athlone Press.
Carpenter, J. B. (2002). Costly Discipleship in an Age of Consumerism. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 95-114.
Chan, E. (2002). Globalisation and the Church- A Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation: Towards a Biblical Response. T. S. Chee and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 54-59.
Dawn, M. J. (1995). Reaching Out Without Dumbing Down: A Theology of Worship for the Turn-of-the-Century Culture. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group.
L.Y.Chan, M. (2002). The Cross Between the Golden Arches and Mickey Mouse: Discipleship in an Age of McDonaldization and Disneyization. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 115-136.
Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163.
Mohamad, M. (2002). Globalisation and the Real Realities. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd.
Sine, T. (1999). Mustard Seed versus McWorld: Reinventing Life and Faith for the Future. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.
Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship.
Warren, M. (1987). "Religious Formation in the Context of Social Formation." Religious Education 82(4 Fall): 515-528.
Endnotes
[1] Thomas Friedman noted that globalization occurs in three eras: globalization 1.0 (1492-1800) is when the world shrunk from large to medium and is due to countries expanding their empires, globalization 2.0 (1800-2000) when the world shrunk from medium to small due to the influence of multinational companies and we are now in globalization 3.0 where individuals anywhere in the world is empowered and that the world is now “flat”. Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group. p. 9-11. A “flattened” world that empower individual should be a boon to world evangelism. However, not all contributors who are Christians who contributed to, Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship. , response with a positive attitude.
However Lim Hua Min’s comment is telling. Lim is a financial consultant. He writes, “It may be best to view the world in a developmental process in an ascending spiral like a spring. History unfolds this development spiral with its multitude of technology inventions which in turn affect the way society is organized. Ideas are created in response to societal needs. We move from an Agricultural Age to an Industrial Age and now to an Information Age.” Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163. p.161 This should be an appropriate response as each age or era offers its opportunity for service in the expansion of the kingdom of God.
.
Showing posts with label Influencer. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Influencer. Show all posts
Friday, July 20, 2007
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (6)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (6)
Globalisation and Glocalisation
The effects of globalization and glocalisation a powerful effect on the Malaysian church. Malaysia, as one of the economic Tigers is deeply involved in world trade. The technological advances in telecommunications and the Internet have created a smaller interconnected world. Malaysia is a member of the World Trade Organisation which means open borders for trade and professional services. Whether we like it or not, Malaysia is involved in the globalisation process. While there is no agreed definition of globalisation[1], globalisation is often understood to have the following characteristics: increasing speed in communication, the interconnected world become smaller, the blurring of national borders, reciprocity, manageable risk, and presence of trust (Beyon and Dunkerley 2000, 5-6).
The former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr Mahathir advises, “The challenge for Asia is not how to manage the present concept of globalisation but to make it work and to benefit from it. The challenge for Asia is to influence the thinking on globalisation, to reshape it, to reduce the chances of it going awry and in the process destroying economies and countries.” (Mohamad 2002, 16). The Malaysian church is should also take this advice to heart. The church should take up the challenges of globalisation and reshape it for the Kingdom of God.
There are many challenges of globalisation that provides the context that influences the societal corporate spiritual formation. This is the null curriculum of globalisation. Michael Warren, professor of religious education in the department of Theology at St. John’s University in Jamaica mentions three: “culture in the formation of perception, language in the formation of thought and hegemony in the formation of consciousness.” (Warren 1987). This highlights the insidious influence of globalisation. In this discussion, I shall limit it to two: McDonaldisation and Disneyisation.
Mark Chan, resident theologian for Eagles Communications, Singapore comments, “A Mcdonaldized ethos is marked by the dictates of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control does not value individuality, creativity, deliberation or attention to details. It is speed, proficiency, and the attainment of objectified goals that count.” (Chan 2002, 120). The characteristics of McDonaldization is derived from the working of the fast food chain; efficiency means simplified products, calculability means quantifiable products and services, predictability means standardisation of product and services, and control means replacement of human by technology.
McDonaldisation has arrived on our shores and even in our churches. In the name of efficiency, we have begun to simplify our sermons and church services. Some people call it “dumbing down”(Dawn 1995). Important facts are delivered in short sound bites. We have begun to play the number games in marking church attendance and giving. That is calculability. Predictability means standardising our church programs so that it is easily reproducible and by control, we look towards technology to solve our church problems. That’s why imported packaged education program produced by a megachurch in the United States is so attractive because it has been McDonaldised.
Disneyisation is the worldwide control of the arts, entertainment, media so that a particular worldview, values and filtered knowledge are disseminated. It exports escapism, American culture, products, and a delusion that happiness can be bought. Disneyisation has united the world into one culture that regards human beings as consumers. Christians are taught to be consumers of church services and other spiritual things rather than to be involved as participants. Through the media, arts, movies, and music, we are exposed to a delusion of a worldly worldview. The consumer worldview worship Mammon as god.
There is some similarity in Mark Chan’s disneyization and Tom Sine’s McWorld. Tom Sine notes that “McWorld is driven by aspirations and values of modernity and is aggressively at work creating a one-world consumer culture in which shopping mall is replacing the church as the centre of religious devotion, and all of life is reduced to a commodity.” (Sine 1999, 52). Both Chan and Sine discern that consumerism will be a major influence on Christians in the 21st century.
John Carpenter, former lecturer at Singapore Bible College thinks that Chinese Christians will be at greater risk,
“Confucianism has a “legalistic” wing that provides strong virtues than can help Asian societies economically progress just as Calvinism helped parts of Western society progress. Unfortunately, it also has a soft, humanistic wing that assumes “man is the measure of all things.” One wing encourages capitalism. The other wing will, by emphasizing the goodness of human nature, encourage consumerism. If Christians in Asia are going to confront consumerism, they will have to uproot all such tendencies to human-centered religion and ideology.” (Carpenter 2002,109).
Edmund Chan, a pastor in Singapore sums up the challenge of globalisation to the church into three crises; that of identity, of truth, and of authority (Chan 2002). In this globalised interconnected world, it is easy to lose our self identity and take on the identity of the world culture. In consumerism and pragmatism, it is not what is true but what work counts. Hence, there is a tendency to redefine the biblical teaching in terms of efficiency and functionality. In the increasing tendency towards individualism and self-development, there is loss of the understanding of authority, both within and without the church.
Spiritual formation should focus on helping Asian Christians to uproot the materialistic and pragmatic nature of their culture and society.
Bibliography
Beyon, J. and D. Dunkerley, Eds. (2000). Globalization-The Reader. London, The Athlone Press.
Carpenter, J. B. (2002). Costly Discipleship in an Age of Consumerism. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 95-114.
Chan, E. (2002). Globalisation and the Church- A Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation: Towards a Biblical Response. T. S. Chee and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 54-59.
Dawn, M. J. (1995). Reaching Out Without Dumbing Down: A Theology of Worship for the Turn-of-the-Century Culture. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group.
L.Y.Chan, M. (2002). The Cross Between the Golden Arches and Mickey Mouse: Discipleship in an Age of McDonaldization and Disneyization. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 115-136.
Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163.
Mohamad, M. (2002). Globalisation and the Real Realities. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd.
Sine, T. (1999). Mustard Seed versus McWorld: Reinventing Life and Faith for the Future. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.
Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship.
Warren, M. (1987). "Religious Formation in the Context of Social Formation." Religious Education 82(4 Fall): 515-528.
Endnotes
[1] Thomas Friedman noted that globalization occurs in three eras: globalization 1.0 (1492-1800) is when the world shrunk from large to medium and is due to countries expanding their empires, globalization 2.0 (1800-2000) when the world shrunk from medium to small due to the influence of multinational companies and we are now in globalization 3.0 where individuals anywhere in the world is empowered and that the world is now “flat”. Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group. p. 9-11. A “flattened” world that empower individual should be a boon to world evangelism. However, not all contributors who are Christians who contributed to, Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship. , response with a positive attitude.
However Lim Hua Min’s comment is telling. Lim is a financial consultant. He writes, “It may be best to view the world in a developmental process in an ascending spiral like a spring. History unfolds this development spiral with its multitude of technology inventions which in turn affect the way society is organized. Ideas are created in response to societal needs. We move from an Agricultural Age to an Industrial Age and now to an Information Age.” Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163. p.161 This should be an appropriate response as each age or era offers its opportunity for service in the expansion of the kingdom of God.
.
Globalisation and Glocalisation
The effects of globalization and glocalisation a powerful effect on the Malaysian church. Malaysia, as one of the economic Tigers is deeply involved in world trade. The technological advances in telecommunications and the Internet have created a smaller interconnected world. Malaysia is a member of the World Trade Organisation which means open borders for trade and professional services. Whether we like it or not, Malaysia is involved in the globalisation process. While there is no agreed definition of globalisation[1], globalisation is often understood to have the following characteristics: increasing speed in communication, the interconnected world become smaller, the blurring of national borders, reciprocity, manageable risk, and presence of trust (Beyon and Dunkerley 2000, 5-6).
The former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr Mahathir advises, “The challenge for Asia is not how to manage the present concept of globalisation but to make it work and to benefit from it. The challenge for Asia is to influence the thinking on globalisation, to reshape it, to reduce the chances of it going awry and in the process destroying economies and countries.” (Mohamad 2002, 16). The Malaysian church is should also take this advice to heart. The church should take up the challenges of globalisation and reshape it for the Kingdom of God.
There are many challenges of globalisation that provides the context that influences the societal corporate spiritual formation. This is the null curriculum of globalisation. Michael Warren, professor of religious education in the department of Theology at St. John’s University in Jamaica mentions three: “culture in the formation of perception, language in the formation of thought and hegemony in the formation of consciousness.” (Warren 1987). This highlights the insidious influence of globalisation. In this discussion, I shall limit it to two: McDonaldisation and Disneyisation.
Mark Chan, resident theologian for Eagles Communications, Singapore comments, “A Mcdonaldized ethos is marked by the dictates of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control does not value individuality, creativity, deliberation or attention to details. It is speed, proficiency, and the attainment of objectified goals that count.” (Chan 2002, 120). The characteristics of McDonaldization is derived from the working of the fast food chain; efficiency means simplified products, calculability means quantifiable products and services, predictability means standardisation of product and services, and control means replacement of human by technology.
McDonaldisation has arrived on our shores and even in our churches. In the name of efficiency, we have begun to simplify our sermons and church services. Some people call it “dumbing down”(Dawn 1995). Important facts are delivered in short sound bites. We have begun to play the number games in marking church attendance and giving. That is calculability. Predictability means standardising our church programs so that it is easily reproducible and by control, we look towards technology to solve our church problems. That’s why imported packaged education program produced by a megachurch in the United States is so attractive because it has been McDonaldised.
Disneyisation is the worldwide control of the arts, entertainment, media so that a particular worldview, values and filtered knowledge are disseminated. It exports escapism, American culture, products, and a delusion that happiness can be bought. Disneyisation has united the world into one culture that regards human beings as consumers. Christians are taught to be consumers of church services and other spiritual things rather than to be involved as participants. Through the media, arts, movies, and music, we are exposed to a delusion of a worldly worldview. The consumer worldview worship Mammon as god.
There is some similarity in Mark Chan’s disneyization and Tom Sine’s McWorld. Tom Sine notes that “McWorld is driven by aspirations and values of modernity and is aggressively at work creating a one-world consumer culture in which shopping mall is replacing the church as the centre of religious devotion, and all of life is reduced to a commodity.” (Sine 1999, 52). Both Chan and Sine discern that consumerism will be a major influence on Christians in the 21st century.
John Carpenter, former lecturer at Singapore Bible College thinks that Chinese Christians will be at greater risk,
“Confucianism has a “legalistic” wing that provides strong virtues than can help Asian societies economically progress just as Calvinism helped parts of Western society progress. Unfortunately, it also has a soft, humanistic wing that assumes “man is the measure of all things.” One wing encourages capitalism. The other wing will, by emphasizing the goodness of human nature, encourage consumerism. If Christians in Asia are going to confront consumerism, they will have to uproot all such tendencies to human-centered religion and ideology.” (Carpenter 2002,109).
Edmund Chan, a pastor in Singapore sums up the challenge of globalisation to the church into three crises; that of identity, of truth, and of authority (Chan 2002). In this globalised interconnected world, it is easy to lose our self identity and take on the identity of the world culture. In consumerism and pragmatism, it is not what is true but what work counts. Hence, there is a tendency to redefine the biblical teaching in terms of efficiency and functionality. In the increasing tendency towards individualism and self-development, there is loss of the understanding of authority, both within and without the church.
Spiritual formation should focus on helping Asian Christians to uproot the materialistic and pragmatic nature of their culture and society.
Bibliography
Beyon, J. and D. Dunkerley, Eds. (2000). Globalization-The Reader. London, The Athlone Press.
Carpenter, J. B. (2002). Costly Discipleship in an Age of Consumerism. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 95-114.
Chan, E. (2002). Globalisation and the Church- A Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation: Towards a Biblical Response. T. S. Chee and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 54-59.
Dawn, M. J. (1995). Reaching Out Without Dumbing Down: A Theology of Worship for the Turn-of-the-Century Culture. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group.
L.Y.Chan, M. (2002). The Cross Between the Golden Arches and Mickey Mouse: Discipleship in an Age of McDonaldization and Disneyization. Truth to Proclaim: The Gospel in Church & Society. S. Chan. Singapore, Trinity Theological College: 115-136.
Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163.
Mohamad, M. (2002). Globalisation and the Real Realities. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd.
Sine, T. (1999). Mustard Seed versus McWorld: Reinventing Life and Faith for the Future. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.
Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship.
Warren, M. (1987). "Religious Formation in the Context of Social Formation." Religious Education 82(4 Fall): 515-528.
Endnotes
[1] Thomas Friedman noted that globalization occurs in three eras: globalization 1.0 (1492-1800) is when the world shrunk from large to medium and is due to countries expanding their empires, globalization 2.0 (1800-2000) when the world shrunk from medium to small due to the influence of multinational companies and we are now in globalization 3.0 where individuals anywhere in the world is empowered and that the world is now “flat”. Friedman, T. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century. London, The Penguin Group. p. 9-11. A “flattened” world that empower individual should be a boon to world evangelism. However, not all contributors who are Christians who contributed to, Tong, S. C. and A. Wong, Eds. (2002). The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Towards a Biblical Response. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship. , response with a positive attitude.
However Lim Hua Min’s comment is telling. Lim is a financial consultant. He writes, “It may be best to view the world in a developmental process in an ascending spiral like a spring. History unfolds this development spiral with its multitude of technology inventions which in turn affect the way society is organized. Ideas are created in response to societal needs. We move from an Agricultural Age to an Industrial Age and now to an Information Age.” Lim, H. M. (2002). Globalisation and the Economy- A System Response. The Challenge and Impact of Globalisation-Toward a Biblical Response. S. C. Tong and A. Wong. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship: 128-163. p.161 This should be an appropriate response as each age or era offers its opportunity for service in the expansion of the kingdom of God.
.
Tuesday, July 10, 2007
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (5)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (5)
Being Christian in an Islam dominant country
The relationship of Christianity to Islam as the dominant religion in society is an important influencers on how the spiritual formation of Christians in that country develops. This is a unique situation in Malaysia which the West will not have experienced before. How do Christians in Malaysia relate and exist in a society that has no Christian or even post-Christian heritage?
Post-independent Malaysia accepted Islam as the official religion while the Constitution guarantees religious freedom for those who are non-Muslim. In recent years however, there are attempts to “Islamise” the education system, restrict religious activities of all religions other than Islam, limiting the availability of land for other religions to build places of worship and to bury their dead, and the attempt to impose Syariah laws on non-Muslim. Christians are specially targeted in apostasy laws in which it is illegal to try to convert a Muslim. Ng Kam Weng, director of Kairos Research Centre in Malaysia, appeals, “It is timely to be reminded that our founding fathers came together in a spirit of social contract which resulted in religious liberty being enshrined into the Constitution.” (Ng 1998, 82).
Only a small group of Christians are acting visibly to defend their right to religious freedom under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution. These concerned Christians tend to negotiate with the government for their religious freedom under umbrella church organisations or non-governmental organisations (NGOs). No churches in Malaysia are directly involved in any negotiation with the government or any official religious department. Though the government has been promising religious tolerance and every-one's right to choose their religions as given under the country’s Constitution, overzealous religious officials at the ground levels are practicing the opposite.
How does the Malaysian Presbyterian churches respond to this? Again by withdrawing into a religious ghettos with minimal interactions with Muslims. Only when the government encroach on their religious rights do they protest and fight for them. Otherwise they remain within their religious circles. They have no Muslims friends, only Christian ones. What developed is a much individualised spirituality within the confines of the communities of faith.
In an unpublished paper, I wrote,
“There is no church involvement with the surrounding communities. The church is wary of government and the Islamisation efforts of the government in schools. Members are also wary of materialist influences from an affluence lifestyle. They feel marginalised in the economic and educational opportunities in the country. There is no political involvement. Life is often fragmented between workplace and church… The reason for this withdrawal from society may be fear of involvement and drawing attention to themselves in a society that is hostile to Christianity. It may also due to the Malaysia Presbyterian tradition. Roxborough wrote, “the focus for many congregations is essentially that of their own life.... denominational expressions of ‘social concerns’ are limited.” (Roxborogh 1992, 102)
Sang Kancil, (Malay word for) the mousedeer is a small defenseless animal in a jungle full of predators. It survives by blending into the background, remaining motionless and hoping that the predators will leave it alone. It makes no attempt to change its surroundings. This is the theology that has evolved over the years as the [this particular] church seeks to true to its calling and be relevant in its socio-political-economic climate. There was no conscious effort to create this (Sang Kancil) theology.”(Tang 1999)
The response of the Malaysian Christians has been either to barricade themselves into religious ghettos, live in a state of denial assuming that everything is well, or to migrate to other countries. Essentially they choose to live in a culture of fear, where their Christian formative experiences exclude a God who calls them and will protect them.
Bibliography
Roxborogh, J. (1992). The Presbyterian Church. Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. K. H. L. Robert Hunt, John Roxborogh. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd: 75-106.
Tang, A. (1999). Sang Kancil Theology: The Search for a Contextualised Theology in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, Malaysia Bible Seminari.
Being Christian in an Islam dominant country
The relationship of Christianity to Islam as the dominant religion in society is an important influencers on how the spiritual formation of Christians in that country develops. This is a unique situation in Malaysia which the West will not have experienced before. How do Christians in Malaysia relate and exist in a society that has no Christian or even post-Christian heritage?
Post-independent Malaysia accepted Islam as the official religion while the Constitution guarantees religious freedom for those who are non-Muslim. In recent years however, there are attempts to “Islamise” the education system, restrict religious activities of all religions other than Islam, limiting the availability of land for other religions to build places of worship and to bury their dead, and the attempt to impose Syariah laws on non-Muslim. Christians are specially targeted in apostasy laws in which it is illegal to try to convert a Muslim. Ng Kam Weng, director of Kairos Research Centre in Malaysia, appeals, “It is timely to be reminded that our founding fathers came together in a spirit of social contract which resulted in religious liberty being enshrined into the Constitution.” (Ng 1998, 82).
Only a small group of Christians are acting visibly to defend their right to religious freedom under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution. These concerned Christians tend to negotiate with the government for their religious freedom under umbrella church organisations or non-governmental organisations (NGOs). No churches in Malaysia are directly involved in any negotiation with the government or any official religious department. Though the government has been promising religious tolerance and every-one's right to choose their religions as given under the country’s Constitution, overzealous religious officials at the ground levels are practicing the opposite.
How does the Malaysian Presbyterian churches respond to this? Again by withdrawing into a religious ghettos with minimal interactions with Muslims. Only when the government encroach on their religious rights do they protest and fight for them. Otherwise they remain within their religious circles. They have no Muslims friends, only Christian ones. What developed is a much individualised spirituality within the confines of the communities of faith.
In an unpublished paper, I wrote,
“There is no church involvement with the surrounding communities. The church is wary of government and the Islamisation efforts of the government in schools. Members are also wary of materialist influences from an affluence lifestyle. They feel marginalised in the economic and educational opportunities in the country. There is no political involvement. Life is often fragmented between workplace and church… The reason for this withdrawal from society may be fear of involvement and drawing attention to themselves in a society that is hostile to Christianity. It may also due to the Malaysia Presbyterian tradition. Roxborough wrote, “the focus for many congregations is essentially that of their own life.... denominational expressions of ‘social concerns’ are limited.” (Roxborogh 1992, 102)
Sang Kancil, (Malay word for) the mousedeer is a small defenseless animal in a jungle full of predators. It survives by blending into the background, remaining motionless and hoping that the predators will leave it alone. It makes no attempt to change its surroundings. This is the theology that has evolved over the years as the [this particular] church seeks to true to its calling and be relevant in its socio-political-economic climate. There was no conscious effort to create this (Sang Kancil) theology.”(Tang 1999)
The response of the Malaysian Christians has been either to barricade themselves into religious ghettos, live in a state of denial assuming that everything is well, or to migrate to other countries. Essentially they choose to live in a culture of fear, where their Christian formative experiences exclude a God who calls them and will protect them.
Bibliography
Roxborogh, J. (1992). The Presbyterian Church. Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. K. H. L. Robert Hunt, John Roxborogh. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd: 75-106.
Tang, A. (1999). Sang Kancil Theology: The Search for a Contextualised Theology in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, Malaysia Bible Seminari.
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (5)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation (5)
Being Christian in an Islam dominant country
The relationship of Christianity to Islam as the dominant religion in society is an important influencers on how the spiritual formation of Christians in that country develops. This is a unique situation in Malaysia which the West will not have experienced before. How do Christians in Malaysia relate and exist in a society that has no Christian or even post-Christian heritage?
Post-independent Malaysia accepted Islam as the official religion while the Constitution guarantees religious freedom for those who are non-Muslim. In recent years however, there are attempts to “Islamise” the education system, restrict religious activities of all religions other than Islam, limiting the availability of land for other religions to build places of worship and to bury their dead, and the attempt to impose Syariah laws on non-Muslim. Christians are specially targeted in apostasy laws in which it is illegal to try to convert a Muslim. Ng Kam Weng, director of Kairos Research Centre in Malaysia, appeals, “It is timely to be reminded that our founding fathers came together in a spirit of social contract which resulted in religious liberty being enshrined into the Constitution.” (Ng 1998, 82).
Only a small group of Christians are acting visibly to defend their right to religious freedom under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution. These concerned Christians tend to negotiate with the government for their religious freedom under umbrella church organisations or non-governmental organisations (NGOs). No churches in Malaysia are directly involved in any negotiation with the government or any official religious department. Though the government has been promising religious tolerance and every-one's right to choose their religions as given under the country’s Constitution, overzealous religious officials at the ground levels are practicing the opposite.
How does the Malaysian Presbyterian churches respond to this? Again by withdrawing into a religious ghettos with minimal interactions with Muslims. Only when the government encroach on their religious rights do they protest and fight for them. Otherwise they remain within their religious circles. They have no Muslims friends, only Christian ones. What developed is a much individualised spirituality within the confines of the communities of faith.
In an unpublished paper, I wrote,
“There is no church involvement with the surrounding communities. The church is wary of government and the Islamisation efforts of the government in schools. Members are also wary of materialist influences from an affluence lifestyle. They feel marginalised in the economic and educational opportunities in the country. There is no political involvement. Life is often fragmented between workplace and church… The reason for this withdrawal from society may be fear of involvement and drawing attention to themselves in a society that is hostile to Christianity. It may also due to the Malaysia Presbyterian tradition. Roxborough wrote, “the focus for many congregations is essentially that of their own life.... denominational expressions of ‘social concerns’ are limited.” (Roxborogh 1992, 102)
Sang Kancil, (Malay word for) the mousedeer is a small defenseless animal in a jungle full of predators. It survives by blending into the background, remaining motionless and hoping that the predators will leave it alone. It makes no attempt to change its surroundings. This is the theology that has evolved over the years as the [this particular] church seeks to true to its calling and be relevant in its socio-political-economic climate. There was no conscious effort to create this (Sang Kancil) theology.”(Tang 1999)
The response of the Malaysian Christians has been either to barricade themselves into religious ghettos, live in a state of denial assuming that everything is well, or to migrate to other countries. Essentially they choose to live in a culture of fear, where their Christian formative experiences exclude a God who calls them and will protect them.
Bibliography
Roxborogh, J. (1992). The Presbyterian Church. Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. K. H. L. Robert Hunt, John Roxborogh. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd: 75-106.
Tang, A. (1999). Sang Kancil Theology: The Search for a Contextualised Theology in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, Malaysia Bible Seminari.
Being Christian in an Islam dominant country
The relationship of Christianity to Islam as the dominant religion in society is an important influencers on how the spiritual formation of Christians in that country develops. This is a unique situation in Malaysia which the West will not have experienced before. How do Christians in Malaysia relate and exist in a society that has no Christian or even post-Christian heritage?
Post-independent Malaysia accepted Islam as the official religion while the Constitution guarantees religious freedom for those who are non-Muslim. In recent years however, there are attempts to “Islamise” the education system, restrict religious activities of all religions other than Islam, limiting the availability of land for other religions to build places of worship and to bury their dead, and the attempt to impose Syariah laws on non-Muslim. Christians are specially targeted in apostasy laws in which it is illegal to try to convert a Muslim. Ng Kam Weng, director of Kairos Research Centre in Malaysia, appeals, “It is timely to be reminded that our founding fathers came together in a spirit of social contract which resulted in religious liberty being enshrined into the Constitution.” (Ng 1998, 82).
Only a small group of Christians are acting visibly to defend their right to religious freedom under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution. These concerned Christians tend to negotiate with the government for their religious freedom under umbrella church organisations or non-governmental organisations (NGOs). No churches in Malaysia are directly involved in any negotiation with the government or any official religious department. Though the government has been promising religious tolerance and every-one's right to choose their religions as given under the country’s Constitution, overzealous religious officials at the ground levels are practicing the opposite.
How does the Malaysian Presbyterian churches respond to this? Again by withdrawing into a religious ghettos with minimal interactions with Muslims. Only when the government encroach on their religious rights do they protest and fight for them. Otherwise they remain within their religious circles. They have no Muslims friends, only Christian ones. What developed is a much individualised spirituality within the confines of the communities of faith.
In an unpublished paper, I wrote,
“There is no church involvement with the surrounding communities. The church is wary of government and the Islamisation efforts of the government in schools. Members are also wary of materialist influences from an affluence lifestyle. They feel marginalised in the economic and educational opportunities in the country. There is no political involvement. Life is often fragmented between workplace and church… The reason for this withdrawal from society may be fear of involvement and drawing attention to themselves in a society that is hostile to Christianity. It may also due to the Malaysia Presbyterian tradition. Roxborough wrote, “the focus for many congregations is essentially that of their own life.... denominational expressions of ‘social concerns’ are limited.” (Roxborogh 1992, 102)
Sang Kancil, (Malay word for) the mousedeer is a small defenseless animal in a jungle full of predators. It survives by blending into the background, remaining motionless and hoping that the predators will leave it alone. It makes no attempt to change its surroundings. This is the theology that has evolved over the years as the [this particular] church seeks to true to its calling and be relevant in its socio-political-economic climate. There was no conscious effort to create this (Sang Kancil) theology.”(Tang 1999)
The response of the Malaysian Christians has been either to barricade themselves into religious ghettos, live in a state of denial assuming that everything is well, or to migrate to other countries. Essentially they choose to live in a culture of fear, where their Christian formative experiences exclude a God who calls them and will protect them.
Bibliography
Roxborogh, J. (1992). The Presbyterian Church. Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. K. H. L. Robert Hunt, John Roxborogh. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd: 75-106.
Tang, A. (1999). Sang Kancil Theology: The Search for a Contextualised Theology in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, Malaysia Bible Seminari.
Tuesday, July 3, 2007
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (4)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (4)
Religious Pluralism in Multicultural Malaysia
Religious pluralism in a multicultural society is another spiritual formation influencer. The Star, one of Malaysia’s English newspaper has this report entitled “Holy Friday for Malaysia” dated Saturday 7 April 2007:
“It was a Holy Friday for Malaysians as they headed for the churches, temples, shrines and mosques yesterday. While Muslims converged for the Friday prayers, Christians attended Good Friday masses, devotees of Kuan Yin (celebrating her birthday) thronged temples while Hindus prayed to Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed God to remove all obstacles.” (2007,N3)
Christianity has to coexist with Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Bahai’ism, and many indigenous tribal religions in multi-racial Malaysia. Each of these religions have their sacred books, their traditions, their civilisations which may be thousands of years old, and each claim to be the one true religion.
How are the Christians to respond in such a situation?
There have been a number of options in which Christians are responding to religious pluralism. The commonest is withdrawal into a religious ghetto. Here we isolate ourselves from the demands of other religions, limiting our interactions with practitioners of other religions, and reserve our interactions with Christians alone. The second option is to start a crusade and by violence make Christianity the dominant religion and wiping out all other religions. Where once practised elsewhere in Christian history, that is not an option in Malaysia. The third option is to re-examine our theology to see if there are room for other faith to come in. Rienzie Perera research director of Life & Peace Institute, Sweden presented a paper, Religions, Cultures and Peace: The Challenge of Religious Pluralism and the Common Life in Asia, at the Asian Conference on Church and Society in 1999. He mentioned that Christians need to re-examine three theological statements if they are to deal adequately with religious pluralism in Asia. “They are: outside the Church no remission of sin, outside Jesus no salvation, and outside the Scriptures no revelation of God.” (italics author’s)(1999, 113). It should not be heretical to re-examine these doctrines but should be “a distinctively Asian contribution to Third World theologies, that of rethinking Christian faith within the parameters of religious pluralism.” (Parratt 2004, 9-11). Song, professor of theology in the South East Asia Graduate School of Theology comments,
“Let us be clear, then, that it is not our business to protect the truth. Rather it is our business to serve the truth, wherever and whenever it is found…God’s salvation can no longer be explained in terms of a history moving forward along a straight line. To explain God’s salvation this way is to explain it away. God moves in all directions: God moves forward, no doubt, but also sideways, and even backwards. Perhaps God zigzags too. It does not seem God's interest to create neat and tidy landscapes in certain selected places. God goes anywhere a redeeming presence is called for- in Asia, in Africa, as well as in Israel and in the West.” (Song 1985, 17-18)
There is a great need to develop Third world theologies that will adequately address this problem of religious pluralism in the various Third world countries. With increasing migration, religious pluralism will be an issue in the First world in the coming years. The fourth option is to deal minimally with other religions while maintaining our doctrinal purity. Albert Vun, an Anglican priest advises, “The challenge is to modify ethical behaviour so as not to give any occasion for stumbling to the church of God nor to create hindrances to the not-yet-believing to accept the gospel.” (Vun 1992, 32) The final option is to engage in dialogue with the other religions[1]. This dialogue will deal with common grounds, with the intention to learn from one another. Yap Kim Hao, the first Asian Bishop of the Methodist Church in Malaysia and Singapore, comments,
"Therefore, dialogue does not demand the avoidance of differences or the suspension of theological convictions. It is not a polite refusal of facing up to the essential things that divide us. Experience in dialogue reveals that the dialogue partners are very much interested in the differences of theological convictions. They are eager to try to understand the other person’s faith and beliefs even though they are contradictory to their own cherished ideas and practices. It is within the setting of dialogues that we witness to one another of our faith. We are called to approach with honesty and integrity”. (Yap 1990, 109)
The aim is to find ways to co-exist with tolerance and harmony through dialogue.
The Malaysian Chinese Presbyterian churches have adopted a spiritual ghettos mentality in response to the religious pluralism in the country. There are no attempts to reach out or dialogue with other religious groups. The ghetto mentality is another spiritual formation influencer in the Presbyterian churches.
Malaysia is a multi-cultural country. Therefore it is essential that the different races be able to live in peace with one another. Unfortunately, two myths continue to threaten the harmony of the relationship between the majority Malays and the Chinese. Wang Gung Wi, Director of the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore writes,
“Two myths have survived to continue to endanger communal trust between Malays and Chinese: that of the wealthy Chinese and that of the lazy Malays. They have bedevilled the economic and educational developments of the country since independence in 1957. The wealthy Chinese myth has led to economic policies which appear blatantly discriminatory to the Chinese and seem to ignore the fact that the majority of Chinese are poor. The lazy Malay myth has coloured Chinese explanations of Malay failures in both education and commerce and made the Chinese discontented with the highly protectionist New Economic policy of he government.” (Wang 2001, 273)
Unfortunately the Malaysia churches also subscribe to these myths. Instead of reaching out to each other, the Malaysian Christian tends to restrict contact with the other races at a business or government level. There is very little social mixing of the different racial groups. Believing the myths, angry at the discriminatory government measures, and fearful of being accused of evangelising, Malaysian Christians are having little contact with the Malays. This leads to further polarisation. This is a direct challenge to the Biblical teaching of loving your neighbours.
Bibliography
(2007). Holy Friday for Malaysians. The Star. Kuala Lumpur: N3.
Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers.
Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications.
Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library.
Parratt, J., Ed. (2004). An Introduction to Third World Theologies. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House.
Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International.
Song, C. S. (1985). Tell Our Names: Story Theology from an Asian Perspective. Indore, India, Satprakashan Sanchar Kendra.
Vun, A. (1992). The Challenge of Religious Pluralism: Some Preliminary Considerations. Readings in Malaysian Church & Mission. K. P. Goh. Petaling Jaya, Pustaka SUFES: 25-34.
Wang, G. W. (2001). Don't Leave Home: Migration and the Chinese. Singapore, Times Academic Press.
Yap, H. K. (1990). Doing Theology in a Pluralistic World. Singapore, The Methodist Bookroom.
Endnotes
[1] The Dalai Lama’s Buddhist-Christian dialogue is an excellent model of respectful dialogue, even though the Dalai Lama does not accept the deity of Jesus, nor the need of salvation. Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications. Thich Nhat Hanh has a similar gentle approach. Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Robert Kennedy who is a Jesuit is more syncretic in his approach. Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Though the various authors in the next two books are mission minded, many of them did express in their writings respect suitable for a dialogue. It is difficult to have a dialogue if one party think that only he/she has the Truth and no one else. Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library. and Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Bob Robinson provides a broad understanding of Christina-Hindu dialogue within a theological framework. Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International. Bede Griffiths is still the best writer of the Christian-Hindu dialogue. Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers. Kenneth Cragg’s book is still the best for an introduction to the Muslim-Christian dialogue. His gentle approach and call for understanding, participation, retrieval, interpretation, hope, and faith is inspiring. Phil Parshall builds on Cragg’s approach but approaches from the direction of folk Islam, mysticism, and Sufism. Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary approaches inter-religious dialogue as a critic. Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Religious Pluralism in Multicultural Malaysia
Religious pluralism in a multicultural society is another spiritual formation influencer. The Star, one of Malaysia’s English newspaper has this report entitled “Holy Friday for Malaysia” dated Saturday 7 April 2007:
“It was a Holy Friday for Malaysians as they headed for the churches, temples, shrines and mosques yesterday. While Muslims converged for the Friday prayers, Christians attended Good Friday masses, devotees of Kuan Yin (celebrating her birthday) thronged temples while Hindus prayed to Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed God to remove all obstacles.” (2007,N3)
Christianity has to coexist with Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Bahai’ism, and many indigenous tribal religions in multi-racial Malaysia. Each of these religions have their sacred books, their traditions, their civilisations which may be thousands of years old, and each claim to be the one true religion.
How are the Christians to respond in such a situation?
There have been a number of options in which Christians are responding to religious pluralism. The commonest is withdrawal into a religious ghetto. Here we isolate ourselves from the demands of other religions, limiting our interactions with practitioners of other religions, and reserve our interactions with Christians alone. The second option is to start a crusade and by violence make Christianity the dominant religion and wiping out all other religions. Where once practised elsewhere in Christian history, that is not an option in Malaysia. The third option is to re-examine our theology to see if there are room for other faith to come in. Rienzie Perera research director of Life & Peace Institute, Sweden presented a paper, Religions, Cultures and Peace: The Challenge of Religious Pluralism and the Common Life in Asia, at the Asian Conference on Church and Society in 1999. He mentioned that Christians need to re-examine three theological statements if they are to deal adequately with religious pluralism in Asia. “They are: outside the Church no remission of sin, outside Jesus no salvation, and outside the Scriptures no revelation of God.” (italics author’s)(1999, 113). It should not be heretical to re-examine these doctrines but should be “a distinctively Asian contribution to Third World theologies, that of rethinking Christian faith within the parameters of religious pluralism.” (Parratt 2004, 9-11). Song, professor of theology in the South East Asia Graduate School of Theology comments,
“Let us be clear, then, that it is not our business to protect the truth. Rather it is our business to serve the truth, wherever and whenever it is found…God’s salvation can no longer be explained in terms of a history moving forward along a straight line. To explain God’s salvation this way is to explain it away. God moves in all directions: God moves forward, no doubt, but also sideways, and even backwards. Perhaps God zigzags too. It does not seem God's interest to create neat and tidy landscapes in certain selected places. God goes anywhere a redeeming presence is called for- in Asia, in Africa, as well as in Israel and in the West.” (Song 1985, 17-18)
There is a great need to develop Third world theologies that will adequately address this problem of religious pluralism in the various Third world countries. With increasing migration, religious pluralism will be an issue in the First world in the coming years. The fourth option is to deal minimally with other religions while maintaining our doctrinal purity. Albert Vun, an Anglican priest advises, “The challenge is to modify ethical behaviour so as not to give any occasion for stumbling to the church of God nor to create hindrances to the not-yet-believing to accept the gospel.” (Vun 1992, 32) The final option is to engage in dialogue with the other religions[1]. This dialogue will deal with common grounds, with the intention to learn from one another. Yap Kim Hao, the first Asian Bishop of the Methodist Church in Malaysia and Singapore, comments,
"Therefore, dialogue does not demand the avoidance of differences or the suspension of theological convictions. It is not a polite refusal of facing up to the essential things that divide us. Experience in dialogue reveals that the dialogue partners are very much interested in the differences of theological convictions. They are eager to try to understand the other person’s faith and beliefs even though they are contradictory to their own cherished ideas and practices. It is within the setting of dialogues that we witness to one another of our faith. We are called to approach with honesty and integrity”. (Yap 1990, 109)
The aim is to find ways to co-exist with tolerance and harmony through dialogue.
The Malaysian Chinese Presbyterian churches have adopted a spiritual ghettos mentality in response to the religious pluralism in the country. There are no attempts to reach out or dialogue with other religious groups. The ghetto mentality is another spiritual formation influencer in the Presbyterian churches.
Malaysia is a multi-cultural country. Therefore it is essential that the different races be able to live in peace with one another. Unfortunately, two myths continue to threaten the harmony of the relationship between the majority Malays and the Chinese. Wang Gung Wi, Director of the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore writes,
“Two myths have survived to continue to endanger communal trust between Malays and Chinese: that of the wealthy Chinese and that of the lazy Malays. They have bedevilled the economic and educational developments of the country since independence in 1957. The wealthy Chinese myth has led to economic policies which appear blatantly discriminatory to the Chinese and seem to ignore the fact that the majority of Chinese are poor. The lazy Malay myth has coloured Chinese explanations of Malay failures in both education and commerce and made the Chinese discontented with the highly protectionist New Economic policy of he government.” (Wang 2001, 273)
Unfortunately the Malaysia churches also subscribe to these myths. Instead of reaching out to each other, the Malaysian Christian tends to restrict contact with the other races at a business or government level. There is very little social mixing of the different racial groups. Believing the myths, angry at the discriminatory government measures, and fearful of being accused of evangelising, Malaysian Christians are having little contact with the Malays. This leads to further polarisation. This is a direct challenge to the Biblical teaching of loving your neighbours.
Bibliography
(2007). Holy Friday for Malaysians. The Star. Kuala Lumpur: N3.
Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers.
Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications.
Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library.
Parratt, J., Ed. (2004). An Introduction to Third World Theologies. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House.
Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International.
Song, C. S. (1985). Tell Our Names: Story Theology from an Asian Perspective. Indore, India, Satprakashan Sanchar Kendra.
Vun, A. (1992). The Challenge of Religious Pluralism: Some Preliminary Considerations. Readings in Malaysian Church & Mission. K. P. Goh. Petaling Jaya, Pustaka SUFES: 25-34.
Wang, G. W. (2001). Don't Leave Home: Migration and the Chinese. Singapore, Times Academic Press.
Yap, H. K. (1990). Doing Theology in a Pluralistic World. Singapore, The Methodist Bookroom.
Endnotes
[1] The Dalai Lama’s Buddhist-Christian dialogue is an excellent model of respectful dialogue, even though the Dalai Lama does not accept the deity of Jesus, nor the need of salvation. Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications. Thich Nhat Hanh has a similar gentle approach. Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Robert Kennedy who is a Jesuit is more syncretic in his approach. Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Though the various authors in the next two books are mission minded, many of them did express in their writings respect suitable for a dialogue. It is difficult to have a dialogue if one party think that only he/she has the Truth and no one else. Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library. and Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Bob Robinson provides a broad understanding of Christina-Hindu dialogue within a theological framework. Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International. Bede Griffiths is still the best writer of the Christian-Hindu dialogue. Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers. Kenneth Cragg’s book is still the best for an introduction to the Muslim-Christian dialogue. His gentle approach and call for understanding, participation, retrieval, interpretation, hope, and faith is inspiring. Phil Parshall builds on Cragg’s approach but approaches from the direction of folk Islam, mysticism, and Sufism. Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary approaches inter-religious dialogue as a critic. Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (4)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (4)
Religious Pluralism in Multicultural Malaysia
Religious pluralism in a multicultural society is another spiritual formation influencer. The Star, one of Malaysia’s English newspaper has this report entitled “Holy Friday for Malaysia” dated Saturday 7 April 2007:
“It was a Holy Friday for Malaysians as they headed for the churches, temples, shrines and mosques yesterday. While Muslims converged for the Friday prayers, Christians attended Good Friday masses, devotees of Kuan Yin (celebrating her birthday) thronged temples while Hindus prayed to Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed God to remove all obstacles.” (2007,N3)
Christianity has to coexist with Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Bahai’ism, and many indigenous tribal religions in multi-racial Malaysia. Each of these religions have their sacred books, their traditions, their civilisations which may be thousands of years old, and each claim to be the one true religion.
How are the Christians to respond in such a situation?
There have been a number of options in which Christians are responding to religious pluralism. The commonest is withdrawal into a religious ghetto. Here we isolate ourselves from the demands of other religions, limiting our interactions with practitioners of other religions, and reserve our interactions with Christians alone. The second option is to start a crusade and by violence make Christianity the dominant religion and wiping out all other religions. Where once practised elsewhere in Christian history, that is not an option in Malaysia. The third option is to re-examine our theology to see if there are room for other faith to come in. Rienzie Perera research director of Life & Peace Institute, Sweden presented a paper, Religions, Cultures and Peace: The Challenge of Religious Pluralism and the Common Life in Asia, at the Asian Conference on Church and Society in 1999. He mentioned that Christians need to re-examine three theological statements if they are to deal adequately with religious pluralism in Asia. “They are: outside the Church no remission of sin, outside Jesus no salvation, and outside the Scriptures no revelation of God.” (italics author’s)(1999, 113). It should not be heretical to re-examine these doctrines but should be “a distinctively Asian contribution to Third World theologies, that of rethinking Christian faith within the parameters of religious pluralism.” (Parratt 2004, 9-11). Song, professor of theology in the South East Asia Graduate School of Theology comments,
“Let us be clear, then, that it is not our business to protect the truth. Rather it is our business to serve the truth, wherever and whenever it is found…God’s salvation can no longer be explained in terms of a history moving forward along a straight line. To explain God’s salvation this way is to explain it away. God moves in all directions: God moves forward, no doubt, but also sideways, and even backwards. Perhaps God zigzags too. It does not seem God's interest to create neat and tidy landscapes in certain selected places. God goes anywhere a redeeming presence is called for- in Asia, in Africa, as well as in Israel and in the West.” (Song 1985, 17-18)
There is a great need to develop Third world theologies that will adequately address this problem of religious pluralism in the various Third world countries. With increasing migration, religious pluralism will be an issue in the First world in the coming years. The fourth option is to deal minimally with other religions while maintaining our doctrinal purity. Albert Vun, an Anglican priest advises, “The challenge is to modify ethical behaviour so as not to give any occasion for stumbling to the church of God nor to create hindrances to the not-yet-believing to accept the gospel.” (Vun 1992, 32) The final option is to engage in dialogue with the other religions[1]. This dialogue will deal with common grounds, with the intention to learn from one another. Yap Kim Hao, the first Asian Bishop of the Methodist Church in Malaysia and Singapore, comments,
"Therefore, dialogue does not demand the avoidance of differences or the suspension of theological convictions. It is not a polite refusal of facing up to the essential things that divide us. Experience in dialogue reveals that the dialogue partners are very much interested in the differences of theological convictions. They are eager to try to understand the other person’s faith and beliefs even though they are contradictory to their own cherished ideas and practices. It is within the setting of dialogues that we witness to one another of our faith. We are called to approach with honesty and integrity”. (Yap 1990, 109)
The aim is to find ways to co-exist with tolerance and harmony through dialogue.
The Malaysian Chinese Presbyterian churches have adopted a spiritual ghettos mentality in response to the religious pluralism in the country. There are no attempts to reach out or dialogue with other religious groups. The ghetto mentality is another spiritual formation influencer in the Presbyterian churches.
Malaysia is a multi-cultural country. Therefore it is essential that the different races be able to live in peace with one another. Unfortunately, two myths continue to threaten the harmony of the relationship between the majority Malays and the Chinese. Wang Gung Wi, Director of the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore writes,
“Two myths have survived to continue to endanger communal trust between Malays and Chinese: that of the wealthy Chinese and that of the lazy Malays. They have bedevilled the economic and educational developments of the country since independence in 1957. The wealthy Chinese myth has led to economic policies which appear blatantly discriminatory to the Chinese and seem to ignore the fact that the majority of Chinese are poor. The lazy Malay myth has coloured Chinese explanations of Malay failures in both education and commerce and made the Chinese discontented with the highly protectionist New Economic policy of he government.” (Wang 2001, 273)
Unfortunately the Malaysia churches also subscribe to these myths. Instead of reaching out to each other, the Malaysian Christian tends to restrict contact with the other races at a business or government level. There is very little social mixing of the different racial groups. Believing the myths, angry at the discriminatory government measures, and fearful of being accused of evangelising, Malaysian Christians are having little contact with the Malays. This leads to further polarisation. This is a direct challenge to the Biblical teaching of loving your neighbours.
Bibliography
(2007). Holy Friday for Malaysians. The Star. Kuala Lumpur: N3.
Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers.
Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications.
Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library.
Parratt, J., Ed. (2004). An Introduction to Third World Theologies. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House.
Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International.
Song, C. S. (1985). Tell Our Names: Story Theology from an Asian Perspective. Indore, India, Satprakashan Sanchar Kendra.
Vun, A. (1992). The Challenge of Religious Pluralism: Some Preliminary Considerations. Readings in Malaysian Church & Mission. K. P. Goh. Petaling Jaya, Pustaka SUFES: 25-34.
Wang, G. W. (2001). Don't Leave Home: Migration and the Chinese. Singapore, Times Academic Press.
Yap, H. K. (1990). Doing Theology in a Pluralistic World. Singapore, The Methodist Bookroom.
Endnotes
[1] The Dalai Lama’s Buddhist-Christian dialogue is an excellent model of respectful dialogue, even though the Dalai Lama does not accept the deity of Jesus, nor the need of salvation. Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications. Thich Nhat Hanh has a similar gentle approach. Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Robert Kennedy who is a Jesuit is more syncretic in his approach. Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Though the various authors in the next two books are mission minded, many of them did express in their writings respect suitable for a dialogue. It is difficult to have a dialogue if one party think that only he/she has the Truth and no one else. Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library. and Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Bob Robinson provides a broad understanding of Christina-Hindu dialogue within a theological framework. Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International. Bede Griffiths is still the best writer of the Christian-Hindu dialogue. Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers. Kenneth Cragg’s book is still the best for an introduction to the Muslim-Christian dialogue. His gentle approach and call for understanding, participation, retrieval, interpretation, hope, and faith is inspiring. Phil Parshall builds on Cragg’s approach but approaches from the direction of folk Islam, mysticism, and Sufism. Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary approaches inter-religious dialogue as a critic. Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Religious Pluralism in Multicultural Malaysia
Religious pluralism in a multicultural society is another spiritual formation influencer. The Star, one of Malaysia’s English newspaper has this report entitled “Holy Friday for Malaysia” dated Saturday 7 April 2007:
“It was a Holy Friday for Malaysians as they headed for the churches, temples, shrines and mosques yesterday. While Muslims converged for the Friday prayers, Christians attended Good Friday masses, devotees of Kuan Yin (celebrating her birthday) thronged temples while Hindus prayed to Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed God to remove all obstacles.” (2007,N3)
Christianity has to coexist with Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Bahai’ism, and many indigenous tribal religions in multi-racial Malaysia. Each of these religions have their sacred books, their traditions, their civilisations which may be thousands of years old, and each claim to be the one true religion.
How are the Christians to respond in such a situation?
There have been a number of options in which Christians are responding to religious pluralism. The commonest is withdrawal into a religious ghetto. Here we isolate ourselves from the demands of other religions, limiting our interactions with practitioners of other religions, and reserve our interactions with Christians alone. The second option is to start a crusade and by violence make Christianity the dominant religion and wiping out all other religions. Where once practised elsewhere in Christian history, that is not an option in Malaysia. The third option is to re-examine our theology to see if there are room for other faith to come in. Rienzie Perera research director of Life & Peace Institute, Sweden presented a paper, Religions, Cultures and Peace: The Challenge of Religious Pluralism and the Common Life in Asia, at the Asian Conference on Church and Society in 1999. He mentioned that Christians need to re-examine three theological statements if they are to deal adequately with religious pluralism in Asia. “They are: outside the Church no remission of sin, outside Jesus no salvation, and outside the Scriptures no revelation of God.” (italics author’s)(1999, 113). It should not be heretical to re-examine these doctrines but should be “a distinctively Asian contribution to Third World theologies, that of rethinking Christian faith within the parameters of religious pluralism.” (Parratt 2004, 9-11). Song, professor of theology in the South East Asia Graduate School of Theology comments,
“Let us be clear, then, that it is not our business to protect the truth. Rather it is our business to serve the truth, wherever and whenever it is found…God’s salvation can no longer be explained in terms of a history moving forward along a straight line. To explain God’s salvation this way is to explain it away. God moves in all directions: God moves forward, no doubt, but also sideways, and even backwards. Perhaps God zigzags too. It does not seem God's interest to create neat and tidy landscapes in certain selected places. God goes anywhere a redeeming presence is called for- in Asia, in Africa, as well as in Israel and in the West.” (Song 1985, 17-18)
There is a great need to develop Third world theologies that will adequately address this problem of religious pluralism in the various Third world countries. With increasing migration, religious pluralism will be an issue in the First world in the coming years. The fourth option is to deal minimally with other religions while maintaining our doctrinal purity. Albert Vun, an Anglican priest advises, “The challenge is to modify ethical behaviour so as not to give any occasion for stumbling to the church of God nor to create hindrances to the not-yet-believing to accept the gospel.” (Vun 1992, 32) The final option is to engage in dialogue with the other religions[1]. This dialogue will deal with common grounds, with the intention to learn from one another. Yap Kim Hao, the first Asian Bishop of the Methodist Church in Malaysia and Singapore, comments,
"Therefore, dialogue does not demand the avoidance of differences or the suspension of theological convictions. It is not a polite refusal of facing up to the essential things that divide us. Experience in dialogue reveals that the dialogue partners are very much interested in the differences of theological convictions. They are eager to try to understand the other person’s faith and beliefs even though they are contradictory to their own cherished ideas and practices. It is within the setting of dialogues that we witness to one another of our faith. We are called to approach with honesty and integrity”. (Yap 1990, 109)
The aim is to find ways to co-exist with tolerance and harmony through dialogue.
The Malaysian Chinese Presbyterian churches have adopted a spiritual ghettos mentality in response to the religious pluralism in the country. There are no attempts to reach out or dialogue with other religious groups. The ghetto mentality is another spiritual formation influencer in the Presbyterian churches.
Malaysia is a multi-cultural country. Therefore it is essential that the different races be able to live in peace with one another. Unfortunately, two myths continue to threaten the harmony of the relationship between the majority Malays and the Chinese. Wang Gung Wi, Director of the East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore writes,
“Two myths have survived to continue to endanger communal trust between Malays and Chinese: that of the wealthy Chinese and that of the lazy Malays. They have bedevilled the economic and educational developments of the country since independence in 1957. The wealthy Chinese myth has led to economic policies which appear blatantly discriminatory to the Chinese and seem to ignore the fact that the majority of Chinese are poor. The lazy Malay myth has coloured Chinese explanations of Malay failures in both education and commerce and made the Chinese discontented with the highly protectionist New Economic policy of he government.” (Wang 2001, 273)
Unfortunately the Malaysia churches also subscribe to these myths. Instead of reaching out to each other, the Malaysian Christian tends to restrict contact with the other races at a business or government level. There is very little social mixing of the different racial groups. Believing the myths, angry at the discriminatory government measures, and fearful of being accused of evangelising, Malaysian Christians are having little contact with the Malays. This leads to further polarisation. This is a direct challenge to the Biblical teaching of loving your neighbours.
Bibliography
(2007). Holy Friday for Malaysians. The Star. Kuala Lumpur: N3.
Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers.
Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications.
Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library.
Parratt, J., Ed. (2004). An Introduction to Third World Theologies. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House.
Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International.
Song, C. S. (1985). Tell Our Names: Story Theology from an Asian Perspective. Indore, India, Satprakashan Sanchar Kendra.
Vun, A. (1992). The Challenge of Religious Pluralism: Some Preliminary Considerations. Readings in Malaysian Church & Mission. K. P. Goh. Petaling Jaya, Pustaka SUFES: 25-34.
Wang, G. W. (2001). Don't Leave Home: Migration and the Chinese. Singapore, Times Academic Press.
Yap, H. K. (1990). Doing Theology in a Pluralistic World. Singapore, The Methodist Bookroom.
Endnotes
[1] The Dalai Lama’s Buddhist-Christian dialogue is an excellent model of respectful dialogue, even though the Dalai Lama does not accept the deity of Jesus, nor the need of salvation. Lama, D. (1996). The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. Sommerville, MA, Wisdom Publications. Thich Nhat Hanh has a similar gentle approach. Hanh, T. N. (1995, 2007). Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York, Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Robert Kennedy who is a Jesuit is more syncretic in his approach. Kennedy, R. E. (1995). Zen Spirit, Christian Spirit: The Place of Zen in Chrisian Life. New York, The Continuum International Publishing Group.
Though the various authors in the next two books are mission minded, many of them did express in their writings respect suitable for a dialogue. It is difficult to have a dialogue if one party think that only he/she has the Truth and no one else. Lin, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2003). Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library. and Lim, D. and S. Spaulding, Eds. (2005). Sharing Jesus Holistically with the Buddhist World. Pasadena, CA, William Carey Library Publishers.
Bob Robinson provides a broad understanding of Christina-Hindu dialogue within a theological framework. Robinson, B. (2004). Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India. United Kingdom, Regnum Books International. Bede Griffiths is still the best writer of the Christian-Hindu dialogue. Griffiths, B. (1976). Return to the Center. Springfield. IL, Templegate Publishers. Kenneth Cragg’s book is still the best for an introduction to the Muslim-Christian dialogue. His gentle approach and call for understanding, participation, retrieval, interpretation, hope, and faith is inspiring. Phil Parshall builds on Cragg’s approach but approaches from the direction of folk Islam, mysticism, and Sufism. Parshall, P. (1983). Bridges to Islam: A Christian Perspective on Folk Islam. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Book House. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary approaches inter-religious dialogue as a critic. Chang, L. S. (1999). Asia's Religions: Christianity's Momentous Encounter with Paganism. Canada, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries Canada.
Monday, July 2, 2007
Influencer of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (3)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (3)
Post Colonialism
Post colonial legacy is another influencer on spiritual formation. The fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511 is not a colonisation attempt but a commercial enterprise to capture key points in the Asian spices trading network. The Portuguese under Albuquerque did not aspire to extend their territory beyond the port of Malacca (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 58-60)
The Treaty of Pangkor (1874) was often taken to be the starting point of the British colonisation of Malaya. It was a gradual transition that over a period of 50 years, through a series of agreements, the whole of Malaya came to be under the control of the British and is called ‘British Malaya’. It was in the 1890s that the tin mines concessions and plantations come under British hands. By 1919, the tin industry, early plantation crops, rubber industry, palm oil industry, and padi farming were firmly in British hands. (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 160-255).
Of all the Third World countries, only Thailand and Liberia escaped colonialisation by the European powers. Parratt notes, “Colonialisation was thus a total system: it deprived the colonised of their own political structures, subjected their economies to the needs of the West, and destroyed large areas of cultural and social life.” (2004, 4). The colonial legacy comes about when political boundaries are drawn arbitrary, often dividing families and tribal groups; removing existing political systems which are often tribal or family based and replaced by an European political system which is often a form of dictatorial type; economies are changed and resources exhausted without regards to ecology to feed the demands of the colonialists, and to create a captive market for the goods produced in the West.
Colonialisation also caused anthropological poverty; “the denigration of integrity, humanness and culture.” (Parratt 2004, 5). A foreign language was often imposed by the colonial masters, local culture, traditions, and indigenous religions were often suppressed and replaced by the culture and religion of the colonialists.
Some of the negative post colonial legacy left by the British in Malaysia are
-Racial division. The British adopted a ‘divide and rule’ policy and made no attempts for the integration of the Chinese, Malays, and Indians. This has resulted in racial polarisation which is a major problem in Malaysia today.
-Loss of valuable nature resources.
Ecological disasters caused by destructive mining methods such as strip tin mining and loss of thousands of acres of virgin jungle to be replaced by rubber plantations.
-The British legal system which is inadequate system and now exist alongside the Muslim Syariah courts.
-The English language that became the main medium of instruction. Thus speakers of this language became an elite within the colonial system
-An inefficient bureaucratic government service
-The perception of superiority of the British, the British Empire and anything Western.
-Christianity associated with colonialism and exploitation. It is a “white man’s religion.”
Some of the positive post colonial legacy left by the British are
· A nationalistic movement which led to independence and self-rule
· Christian missionaries
· Christian schools
· English language
· Christianity have a foothold
The major legacy is the deep polarisation of the races. The Malays were restricted to padi farming, the Chinese to tin mining and commerce, and the Indians to rubber plantations. Subsequently each race developed their self-sufficient communities including their own vernacular schools and there are very little interactions between the races. The majority of Chinese and Indians live in British controlled areas and some worked for the British. Barbara Andaya, Professor in the Asian Studies of the University of Hawaii, and Leonard Andaya, Professor of History from the same university, writes, “In colonial societies so efficiently compartmentalised, the Chinese and Indians understandably regarded the Malays and other indigenous groups as standing basically in the same relation as themselves to the colonial authority. Each was assigned a role, which was performed according to British prescriptions.” (2001, 342) This has led to deep suspicions between the races and is a threat to racial harmony. The memory of the racial riots of 1969 is a constant reminder of how precariously balanced on a knife’s edge is the racial relationships in the country. This racial suspicion has a powerful effect on the societal spiritual formation in the communities of faith.
Bibliography
Andaya, B. W. and L. Y. Andaya (2001). A History of Malaysia. Hampshire, UK, PALGRAVE.
Post Colonialism
Post colonial legacy is another influencer on spiritual formation. The fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511 is not a colonisation attempt but a commercial enterprise to capture key points in the Asian spices trading network. The Portuguese under Albuquerque did not aspire to extend their territory beyond the port of Malacca (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 58-60)
The Treaty of Pangkor (1874) was often taken to be the starting point of the British colonisation of Malaya. It was a gradual transition that over a period of 50 years, through a series of agreements, the whole of Malaya came to be under the control of the British and is called ‘British Malaya’. It was in the 1890s that the tin mines concessions and plantations come under British hands. By 1919, the tin industry, early plantation crops, rubber industry, palm oil industry, and padi farming were firmly in British hands. (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 160-255).
Of all the Third World countries, only Thailand and Liberia escaped colonialisation by the European powers. Parratt notes, “Colonialisation was thus a total system: it deprived the colonised of their own political structures, subjected their economies to the needs of the West, and destroyed large areas of cultural and social life.” (2004, 4). The colonial legacy comes about when political boundaries are drawn arbitrary, often dividing families and tribal groups; removing existing political systems which are often tribal or family based and replaced by an European political system which is often a form of dictatorial type; economies are changed and resources exhausted without regards to ecology to feed the demands of the colonialists, and to create a captive market for the goods produced in the West.
Colonialisation also caused anthropological poverty; “the denigration of integrity, humanness and culture.” (Parratt 2004, 5). A foreign language was often imposed by the colonial masters, local culture, traditions, and indigenous religions were often suppressed and replaced by the culture and religion of the colonialists.
Some of the negative post colonial legacy left by the British in Malaysia are
-Racial division. The British adopted a ‘divide and rule’ policy and made no attempts for the integration of the Chinese, Malays, and Indians. This has resulted in racial polarisation which is a major problem in Malaysia today.
-Loss of valuable nature resources.
Ecological disasters caused by destructive mining methods such as strip tin mining and loss of thousands of acres of virgin jungle to be replaced by rubber plantations.
-The British legal system which is inadequate system and now exist alongside the Muslim Syariah courts.
-The English language that became the main medium of instruction. Thus speakers of this language became an elite within the colonial system
-An inefficient bureaucratic government service
-The perception of superiority of the British, the British Empire and anything Western.
-Christianity associated with colonialism and exploitation. It is a “white man’s religion.”
Some of the positive post colonial legacy left by the British are
· A nationalistic movement which led to independence and self-rule
· Christian missionaries
· Christian schools
· English language
· Christianity have a foothold
The major legacy is the deep polarisation of the races. The Malays were restricted to padi farming, the Chinese to tin mining and commerce, and the Indians to rubber plantations. Subsequently each race developed their self-sufficient communities including their own vernacular schools and there are very little interactions between the races. The majority of Chinese and Indians live in British controlled areas and some worked for the British. Barbara Andaya, Professor in the Asian Studies of the University of Hawaii, and Leonard Andaya, Professor of History from the same university, writes, “In colonial societies so efficiently compartmentalised, the Chinese and Indians understandably regarded the Malays and other indigenous groups as standing basically in the same relation as themselves to the colonial authority. Each was assigned a role, which was performed according to British prescriptions.” (2001, 342) This has led to deep suspicions between the races and is a threat to racial harmony. The memory of the racial riots of 1969 is a constant reminder of how precariously balanced on a knife’s edge is the racial relationships in the country. This racial suspicion has a powerful effect on the societal spiritual formation in the communities of faith.
Bibliography
Andaya, B. W. and L. Y. Andaya (2001). A History of Malaysia. Hampshire, UK, PALGRAVE.
Influencer of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (3)
Influencers of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (3)
Post Colonialism
Post colonial legacy is another influencer on spiritual formation. The fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511 is not a colonisation attempt but a commercial enterprise to capture key points in the Asian spices trading network. The Portuguese under Albuquerque did not aspire to extend their territory beyond the port of Malacca (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 58-60)
The Treaty of Pangkor (1874) was often taken to be the starting point of the British colonisation of Malaya. It was a gradual transition that over a period of 50 years, through a series of agreements, the whole of Malaya came to be under the control of the British and is called ‘British Malaya’. It was in the 1890s that the tin mines concessions and plantations come under British hands. By 1919, the tin industry, early plantation crops, rubber industry, palm oil industry, and padi farming were firmly in British hands. (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 160-255).
Of all the Third World countries, only Thailand and Liberia escaped colonialisation by the European powers. Parratt notes, “Colonialisation was thus a total system: it deprived the colonised of their own political structures, subjected their economies to the needs of the West, and destroyed large areas of cultural and social life.” (2004, 4). The colonial legacy comes about when political boundaries are drawn arbitrary, often dividing families and tribal groups; removing existing political systems which are often tribal or family based and replaced by an European political system which is often a form of dictatorial type; economies are changed and resources exhausted without regards to ecology to feed the demands of the colonialists, and to create a captive market for the goods produced in the West.
Colonialisation also caused anthropological poverty; “the denigration of integrity, humanness and culture.” (Parratt 2004, 5). A foreign language was often imposed by the colonial masters, local culture, traditions, and indigenous religions were often suppressed and replaced by the culture and religion of the colonialists.
Some of the negative post colonial legacy left by the British in Malaysia are
-Racial division. The British adopted a ‘divide and rule’ policy and made no attempts for the integration of the Chinese, Malays, and Indians. This has resulted in racial polarisation which is a major problem in Malaysia today.
-Loss of valuable nature resources.
Ecological disasters caused by destructive mining methods such as strip tin mining and loss of thousands of acres of virgin jungle to be replaced by rubber plantations.
-The British legal system which is inadequate system and now exist alongside the Muslim Syariah courts.
-The English language that became the main medium of instruction. Thus speakers of this language became an elite within the colonial system
-An inefficient bureaucratic government service
-The perception of superiority of the British, the British Empire and anything Western.
-Christianity associated with colonialism and exploitation. It is a “white man’s religion.”
Some of the positive post colonial legacy left by the British are
· A nationalistic movement which led to independence and self-rule
· Christian missionaries
· Christian schools
· English language
· Christianity have a foothold
The major legacy is the deep polarisation of the races. The Malays were restricted to padi farming, the Chinese to tin mining and commerce, and the Indians to rubber plantations. Subsequently each race developed their self-sufficient communities including their own vernacular schools and there are very little interactions between the races. The majority of Chinese and Indians live in British controlled areas and some worked for the British. Barbara Andaya, Professor in the Asian Studies of the University of Hawaii, and Leonard Andaya, Professor of History from the same university, writes, “In colonial societies so efficiently compartmentalised, the Chinese and Indians understandably regarded the Malays and other indigenous groups as standing basically in the same relation as themselves to the colonial authority. Each was assigned a role, which was performed according to British prescriptions.” (2001, 342) This has led to deep suspicions between the races and is a threat to racial harmony. The memory of the racial riots of 1969 is a constant reminder of how precariously balanced on a knife’s edge is the racial relationships in the country. This racial suspicion has a powerful effect on the societal spiritual formation in the communities of faith.
Bibliography
Andaya, B. W. and L. Y. Andaya (2001). A History of Malaysia. Hampshire, UK, PALGRAVE.
Post Colonialism
Post colonial legacy is another influencer on spiritual formation. The fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511 is not a colonisation attempt but a commercial enterprise to capture key points in the Asian spices trading network. The Portuguese under Albuquerque did not aspire to extend their territory beyond the port of Malacca (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 58-60)
The Treaty of Pangkor (1874) was often taken to be the starting point of the British colonisation of Malaya. It was a gradual transition that over a period of 50 years, through a series of agreements, the whole of Malaya came to be under the control of the British and is called ‘British Malaya’. It was in the 1890s that the tin mines concessions and plantations come under British hands. By 1919, the tin industry, early plantation crops, rubber industry, palm oil industry, and padi farming were firmly in British hands. (Andaya and Andaya 2001, 160-255).
Of all the Third World countries, only Thailand and Liberia escaped colonialisation by the European powers. Parratt notes, “Colonialisation was thus a total system: it deprived the colonised of their own political structures, subjected their economies to the needs of the West, and destroyed large areas of cultural and social life.” (2004, 4). The colonial legacy comes about when political boundaries are drawn arbitrary, often dividing families and tribal groups; removing existing political systems which are often tribal or family based and replaced by an European political system which is often a form of dictatorial type; economies are changed and resources exhausted without regards to ecology to feed the demands of the colonialists, and to create a captive market for the goods produced in the West.
Colonialisation also caused anthropological poverty; “the denigration of integrity, humanness and culture.” (Parratt 2004, 5). A foreign language was often imposed by the colonial masters, local culture, traditions, and indigenous religions were often suppressed and replaced by the culture and religion of the colonialists.
Some of the negative post colonial legacy left by the British in Malaysia are
-Racial division. The British adopted a ‘divide and rule’ policy and made no attempts for the integration of the Chinese, Malays, and Indians. This has resulted in racial polarisation which is a major problem in Malaysia today.
-Loss of valuable nature resources.
Ecological disasters caused by destructive mining methods such as strip tin mining and loss of thousands of acres of virgin jungle to be replaced by rubber plantations.
-The British legal system which is inadequate system and now exist alongside the Muslim Syariah courts.
-The English language that became the main medium of instruction. Thus speakers of this language became an elite within the colonial system
-An inefficient bureaucratic government service
-The perception of superiority of the British, the British Empire and anything Western.
-Christianity associated with colonialism and exploitation. It is a “white man’s religion.”
Some of the positive post colonial legacy left by the British are
· A nationalistic movement which led to independence and self-rule
· Christian missionaries
· Christian schools
· English language
· Christianity have a foothold
The major legacy is the deep polarisation of the races. The Malays were restricted to padi farming, the Chinese to tin mining and commerce, and the Indians to rubber plantations. Subsequently each race developed their self-sufficient communities including their own vernacular schools and there are very little interactions between the races. The majority of Chinese and Indians live in British controlled areas and some worked for the British. Barbara Andaya, Professor in the Asian Studies of the University of Hawaii, and Leonard Andaya, Professor of History from the same university, writes, “In colonial societies so efficiently compartmentalised, the Chinese and Indians understandably regarded the Malays and other indigenous groups as standing basically in the same relation as themselves to the colonial authority. Each was assigned a role, which was performed according to British prescriptions.” (2001, 342) This has led to deep suspicions between the races and is a threat to racial harmony. The memory of the racial riots of 1969 is a constant reminder of how precariously balanced on a knife’s edge is the racial relationships in the country. This racial suspicion has a powerful effect on the societal spiritual formation in the communities of faith.
Bibliography
Andaya, B. W. and L. Y. Andaya (2001). A History of Malaysia. Hampshire, UK, PALGRAVE.
Friday, June 29, 2007
Influencer of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (2)
Chinese Culture and Religions
for those Malaysian Christians of Chinese Origin
Chinese culture and Chinese religions are powerful societal spiritual formation influencers on the Malaysian Chinese Christian psyche. The Chinese psyche and history is strongly influenced by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and subsequent Confucian scholars. The Way of Confucius is based on two thesis; “that goodness can be taught and learned, and that society can only be in harmony and peace under the guidance of wisdom” (Yao 2000, 26). Out of these two theses are developed four precepts of the Way (dao), ritual/propriety (li), humaness (ren), and virtue (de). The Way (dao) of Confucius leads to the formation of the ideal or virtuous man (junzi), who is in harmony with Heaven and Earth. Becoming a junzi is achievable by learning, and the cultivation of virtue and self-control. This includes the Confucian ideal of family (jia), cult (jiao), and learning (xue)[1]. (Yao 2000, 26-30)
Confucianism was later incorporated into Taoism. When Buddhism was first introduced into China, there was a conflict with Confucianism. Gradually however it was incorporated into a syncretistic folk religion consisting of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and animism. Many Malaysian Chinese Christians come from families that still worship this Chinese folk religion. This involves going to temples on festival days, ancestor worship and having family altars.
However Confucianism remains the key to understanding the Chinese identity. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Cornell Theological Seminary, writes, “Confucius has been respected by Chinese people not only as a great sage but also as an idol in their hearts, they strive to imitate him as Christians imitate Christ.” (1999, 40) To be a Chinese means to embrace the latest incarnation of Confucianism. Confucianism is an inseparable part of the Chinese identity. Whalen Tai, a faculty member at the Department of Religious Studies, University of California at Davis, California makes an interesting observation between Chinese identity and Christianity.
He observes,
The Chinese psyche is strongly influenced by Confucianism. It is estimated that 90% of Chinese students in Malaysia attends the Chinese School system. This is a separate school system form the National Type Schools run by the government. This school system uses Mandarin as its medium of instruction. Its philosophy of education is strongly influenced by Confucianism. The pedagogy is indoctrination of Confucian values.
Yao Xin Zhong, Chair of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Wales, Lampeter observes, “Many Chinese converts made use of Confucian philosophy and ethics to reformulate Christian ideas.” (Yao 2000, 242). This is true of both Chinese and English speaking Presbyterian Christians, though more marked in Chinese speaking Christians. Confucianism teaches a personal moral code of ethic behaviour that finds the Protestant doctrine of unconditional personal salvation offensive (Chu 2001, 209).
However, there is a great emphasis on building right relationships. The five key relationships in Confucianism are ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend. Chu Sin Jan, associate Professor of History, Chinese university of Taipei, notes,
Therefore Chinese Christian relates more to spiritual formation which involves relationships and community better than to personal salvation. Historian Roxbough notes that, “In Malaysia this is a church which for much of its history has rejected the idea of being Presbyterian in favour of wishing to be Chinese” (Roxbough 1992, 101). The Malaysia Chinese lives in a continuum between two cultures: Chinese and Malaysian. One end is Chineseness and the other end is Malaysian multiculturalism. Where one is on the continuum decides one’s behaviour. Samuel Ling, President of China Horizon and researcher into cultural trends that affect Chinese Churches observes that “the Chinese model is rooted in the traditional Chinese family and clan, which sees adults as the focus, and children as appendages. (Ling and Cheuk 1999,69).
This will have an effect on how Chinese in churches plan for children’s ministries[2]. In traditional Chinese culture, leaders and teachers are to be respected. Hence a pastor’s decision is final and accepted without arguments (Ling and Cheuk 1999)148. Again this will create problems in many churches especially amongst the English educated who sees the pastor as an equal and call him or her by their first name.[3]
Bibliography
Chu, S. J. (2001). Confucianism and Christianity. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House.
Lai, W. (2000). Cultural Confucianism, Cultural Christianity: One Dilemma of the Modernized Chinese. Confucianism in Chinese Culture. H. T. Cheu. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd: 113-140.
Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Yao, X. Z. (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
Endnotes
[1] This is a very simplified version of a very complex philosophy and ideology. See Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House. It has often being argued by Confucian scholars that there is no one Confucianism but many; as Confucianism have evolved into different incarnation throughout its thousands of years of Chinese history. See Yao.
[2] Children and Youth ministries are not given much attention in Malaysian Presbyterian churches until recently. What caused a change in focus is the realisation that most youths when they leave their home churches to go to the bigger cities to study do not join Presbyterian churches but churches of other denominations. The solution by the ESP is to form youth orientated churches in the bigger cities. Another area of concern is the role model of fathers in the Chinese culture. Fathers in Chinese culture are often distant, disciplinarians, and business minded. Bishop Ting of China writes, “In fact, the proper Chinese way to refer to one’s own father in polite conversation is the “severe one in my family”…” One wonders how this will affect the perception of the Heavenly Father in the minds of children from these families who became Christian.
[3] These are but two examples of Chinese thinking affecting churches with both Chinese and English educated members. Other examples quoted are evangelism directed to children and not families (p. 142-143), respect for pastors and leaders (p.147-149), and sharing testimonies in public (p.143). Non-Christian families are often unhappy if their children become Christians, respect for leaders and pastors mean not speaking so because to do so is to ‘shame’ them, and for Chinese sharing their ‘achievements’ or giving testimonies in public is taboo (“showing of”, “pride”, “disrespectful”). Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
for those Malaysian Christians of Chinese Origin
Chinese culture and Chinese religions are powerful societal spiritual formation influencers on the Malaysian Chinese Christian psyche. The Chinese psyche and history is strongly influenced by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and subsequent Confucian scholars. The Way of Confucius is based on two thesis; “that goodness can be taught and learned, and that society can only be in harmony and peace under the guidance of wisdom” (Yao 2000, 26). Out of these two theses are developed four precepts of the Way (dao), ritual/propriety (li), humaness (ren), and virtue (de). The Way (dao) of Confucius leads to the formation of the ideal or virtuous man (junzi), who is in harmony with Heaven and Earth. Becoming a junzi is achievable by learning, and the cultivation of virtue and self-control. This includes the Confucian ideal of family (jia), cult (jiao), and learning (xue)[1]. (Yao 2000, 26-30)
Confucianism was later incorporated into Taoism. When Buddhism was first introduced into China, there was a conflict with Confucianism. Gradually however it was incorporated into a syncretistic folk religion consisting of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and animism. Many Malaysian Chinese Christians come from families that still worship this Chinese folk religion. This involves going to temples on festival days, ancestor worship and having family altars.
However Confucianism remains the key to understanding the Chinese identity. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Cornell Theological Seminary, writes, “Confucius has been respected by Chinese people not only as a great sage but also as an idol in their hearts, they strive to imitate him as Christians imitate Christ.” (1999, 40) To be a Chinese means to embrace the latest incarnation of Confucianism. Confucianism is an inseparable part of the Chinese identity. Whalen Tai, a faculty member at the Department of Religious Studies, University of California at Davis, California makes an interesting observation between Chinese identity and Christianity.
He observes,
There is one underlying cultural link. Chinese Christians might denounce Buddhism and Taoism as pagan and superstitious but not Confucianism. Even in the most Christian of Chinese families – the notable sign of which is the greater egalitarianism between church-going spouses and generally greater freedom for the offsprings – the behavioural patterns are still very much Confucian. There is still a greater sense of filial piety, a greater stress on book learning, familial loyalty, hard work, etc. than in a typical Western counterpart which(Lai 2000,132).
would cultivate greater individuality still, with more physical vigour, personal independence, romantic openness, venturesome traits, etc.
The Chinese psyche is strongly influenced by Confucianism. It is estimated that 90% of Chinese students in Malaysia attends the Chinese School system. This is a separate school system form the National Type Schools run by the government. This school system uses Mandarin as its medium of instruction. Its philosophy of education is strongly influenced by Confucianism. The pedagogy is indoctrination of Confucian values.
Yao Xin Zhong, Chair of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Wales, Lampeter observes, “Many Chinese converts made use of Confucian philosophy and ethics to reformulate Christian ideas.” (Yao 2000, 242). This is true of both Chinese and English speaking Presbyterian Christians, though more marked in Chinese speaking Christians. Confucianism teaches a personal moral code of ethic behaviour that finds the Protestant doctrine of unconditional personal salvation offensive (Chu 2001, 209).
However, there is a great emphasis on building right relationships. The five key relationships in Confucianism are ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend. Chu Sin Jan, associate Professor of History, Chinese university of Taipei, notes,
…their (Chinese Christians) Confucian way of reflecting on Christian theology shows their concern that Christians, in the pursuit of ren, be in relationship to establish their character and other people’s character as well as to live in harmony with each other and with God. Confucian values, not to mention Confucian logic and language greatly color their Christian faith. Their Confucian heritage makes them more concerned about personal and social ethics than anything else(2001, 210)
Therefore Chinese Christian relates more to spiritual formation which involves relationships and community better than to personal salvation. Historian Roxbough notes that, “In Malaysia this is a church which for much of its history has rejected the idea of being Presbyterian in favour of wishing to be Chinese” (Roxbough 1992, 101). The Malaysia Chinese lives in a continuum between two cultures: Chinese and Malaysian. One end is Chineseness and the other end is Malaysian multiculturalism. Where one is on the continuum decides one’s behaviour. Samuel Ling, President of China Horizon and researcher into cultural trends that affect Chinese Churches observes that “the Chinese model is rooted in the traditional Chinese family and clan, which sees adults as the focus, and children as appendages. (Ling and Cheuk 1999,69).
This will have an effect on how Chinese in churches plan for children’s ministries[2]. In traditional Chinese culture, leaders and teachers are to be respected. Hence a pastor’s decision is final and accepted without arguments (Ling and Cheuk 1999)148. Again this will create problems in many churches especially amongst the English educated who sees the pastor as an equal and call him or her by their first name.[3]
Bibliography
Chu, S. J. (2001). Confucianism and Christianity. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House.
Lai, W. (2000). Cultural Confucianism, Cultural Christianity: One Dilemma of the Modernized Chinese. Confucianism in Chinese Culture. H. T. Cheu. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd: 113-140.
Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Yao, X. Z. (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
Endnotes
[1] This is a very simplified version of a very complex philosophy and ideology. See Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House. It has often being argued by Confucian scholars that there is no one Confucianism but many; as Confucianism have evolved into different incarnation throughout its thousands of years of Chinese history. See Yao.
[2] Children and Youth ministries are not given much attention in Malaysian Presbyterian churches until recently. What caused a change in focus is the realisation that most youths when they leave their home churches to go to the bigger cities to study do not join Presbyterian churches but churches of other denominations. The solution by the ESP is to form youth orientated churches in the bigger cities. Another area of concern is the role model of fathers in the Chinese culture. Fathers in Chinese culture are often distant, disciplinarians, and business minded. Bishop Ting of China writes, “In fact, the proper Chinese way to refer to one’s own father in polite conversation is the “severe one in my family”…” One wonders how this will affect the perception of the Heavenly Father in the minds of children from these families who became Christian.
[3] These are but two examples of Chinese thinking affecting churches with both Chinese and English educated members. Other examples quoted are evangelism directed to children and not families (p. 142-143), respect for pastors and leaders (p.147-149), and sharing testimonies in public (p.143). Non-Christian families are often unhappy if their children become Christians, respect for leaders and pastors mean not speaking so because to do so is to ‘shame’ them, and for Chinese sharing their ‘achievements’ or giving testimonies in public is taboo (“showing of”, “pride”, “disrespectful”). Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Influencer of Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (2)
Chinese Culture and Religions
for those Malaysian Christians of Chinese Origin
Chinese culture and Chinese religions are powerful societal spiritual formation influencers on the Malaysian Chinese Christian psyche. The Chinese psyche and history is strongly influenced by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and subsequent Confucian scholars. The Way of Confucius is based on two thesis; “that goodness can be taught and learned, and that society can only be in harmony and peace under the guidance of wisdom” (Yao 2000, 26). Out of these two theses are developed four precepts of the Way (dao), ritual/propriety (li), humaness (ren), and virtue (de). The Way (dao) of Confucius leads to the formation of the ideal or virtuous man (junzi), who is in harmony with Heaven and Earth. Becoming a junzi is achievable by learning, and the cultivation of virtue and self-control. This includes the Confucian ideal of family (jia), cult (jiao), and learning (xue)[1]. (Yao 2000, 26-30)
Confucianism was later incorporated into Taoism. When Buddhism was first introduced into China, there was a conflict with Confucianism. Gradually however it was incorporated into a syncretistic folk religion consisting of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and animism. Many Malaysian Chinese Christians come from families that still worship this Chinese folk religion. This involves going to temples on festival days, ancestor worship and having family altars.
However Confucianism remains the key to understanding the Chinese identity. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Cornell Theological Seminary, writes, “Confucius has been respected by Chinese people not only as a great sage but also as an idol in their hearts, they strive to imitate him as Christians imitate Christ.” (1999, 40) To be a Chinese means to embrace the latest incarnation of Confucianism. Confucianism is an inseparable part of the Chinese identity. Whalen Tai, a faculty member at the Department of Religious Studies, University of California at Davis, California makes an interesting observation between Chinese identity and Christianity.
He observes,
The Chinese psyche is strongly influenced by Confucianism. It is estimated that 90% of Chinese students in Malaysia attends the Chinese School system. This is a separate school system form the National Type Schools run by the government. This school system uses Mandarin as its medium of instruction. Its philosophy of education is strongly influenced by Confucianism. The pedagogy is indoctrination of Confucian values.
Yao Xin Zhong, Chair of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Wales, Lampeter observes, “Many Chinese converts made use of Confucian philosophy and ethics to reformulate Christian ideas.” (Yao 2000, 242). This is true of both Chinese and English speaking Presbyterian Christians, though more marked in Chinese speaking Christians. Confucianism teaches a personal moral code of ethic behaviour that finds the Protestant doctrine of unconditional personal salvation offensive (Chu 2001, 209).
However, there is a great emphasis on building right relationships. The five key relationships in Confucianism are ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend. Chu Sin Jan, associate Professor of History, Chinese university of Taipei, notes,
Therefore Chinese Christian relates more to spiritual formation which involves relationships and community better than to personal salvation. Historian Roxbough notes that, “In Malaysia this is a church which for much of its history has rejected the idea of being Presbyterian in favour of wishing to be Chinese” (Roxbough 1992, 101). The Malaysia Chinese lives in a continuum between two cultures: Chinese and Malaysian. One end is Chineseness and the other end is Malaysian multiculturalism. Where one is on the continuum decides one’s behaviour. Samuel Ling, President of China Horizon and researcher into cultural trends that affect Chinese Churches observes that “the Chinese model is rooted in the traditional Chinese family and clan, which sees adults as the focus, and children as appendages. (Ling and Cheuk 1999,69).
This will have an effect on how Chinese in churches plan for children’s ministries[2]. In traditional Chinese culture, leaders and teachers are to be respected. Hence a pastor’s decision is final and accepted without arguments (Ling and Cheuk 1999)148. Again this will create problems in many churches especially amongst the English educated who sees the pastor as an equal and call him or her by their first name.[3]
Bibliography
Chu, S. J. (2001). Confucianism and Christianity. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House.
Lai, W. (2000). Cultural Confucianism, Cultural Christianity: One Dilemma of the Modernized Chinese. Confucianism in Chinese Culture. H. T. Cheu. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd: 113-140.
Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Yao, X. Z. (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
Endnotes
[1] This is a very simplified version of a very complex philosophy and ideology. See Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House. It has often being argued by Confucian scholars that there is no one Confucianism but many; as Confucianism have evolved into different incarnation throughout its thousands of years of Chinese history. See Yao.
[2] Children and Youth ministries are not given much attention in Malaysian Presbyterian churches until recently. What caused a change in focus is the realisation that most youths when they leave their home churches to go to the bigger cities to study do not join Presbyterian churches but churches of other denominations. The solution by the ESP is to form youth orientated churches in the bigger cities. Another area of concern is the role model of fathers in the Chinese culture. Fathers in Chinese culture are often distant, disciplinarians, and business minded. Bishop Ting of China writes, “In fact, the proper Chinese way to refer to one’s own father in polite conversation is the “severe one in my family”…” One wonders how this will affect the perception of the Heavenly Father in the minds of children from these families who became Christian.
[3] These are but two examples of Chinese thinking affecting churches with both Chinese and English educated members. Other examples quoted are evangelism directed to children and not families (p. 142-143), respect for pastors and leaders (p.147-149), and sharing testimonies in public (p.143). Non-Christian families are often unhappy if their children become Christians, respect for leaders and pastors mean not speaking so because to do so is to ‘shame’ them, and for Chinese sharing their ‘achievements’ or giving testimonies in public is taboo (“showing of”, “pride”, “disrespectful”). Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
for those Malaysian Christians of Chinese Origin
Chinese culture and Chinese religions are powerful societal spiritual formation influencers on the Malaysian Chinese Christian psyche. The Chinese psyche and history is strongly influenced by Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and subsequent Confucian scholars. The Way of Confucius is based on two thesis; “that goodness can be taught and learned, and that society can only be in harmony and peace under the guidance of wisdom” (Yao 2000, 26). Out of these two theses are developed four precepts of the Way (dao), ritual/propriety (li), humaness (ren), and virtue (de). The Way (dao) of Confucius leads to the formation of the ideal or virtuous man (junzi), who is in harmony with Heaven and Earth. Becoming a junzi is achievable by learning, and the cultivation of virtue and self-control. This includes the Confucian ideal of family (jia), cult (jiao), and learning (xue)[1]. (Yao 2000, 26-30)
Confucianism was later incorporated into Taoism. When Buddhism was first introduced into China, there was a conflict with Confucianism. Gradually however it was incorporated into a syncretistic folk religion consisting of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and animism. Many Malaysian Chinese Christians come from families that still worship this Chinese folk religion. This involves going to temples on festival days, ancestor worship and having family altars.
However Confucianism remains the key to understanding the Chinese identity. Chang Lit Sen, a Chinese apologist, theologian, scholar in Asian philosophy and Distinguished Lecturer in Mission Emeritus in Gordon-Cornell Theological Seminary, writes, “Confucius has been respected by Chinese people not only as a great sage but also as an idol in their hearts, they strive to imitate him as Christians imitate Christ.” (1999, 40) To be a Chinese means to embrace the latest incarnation of Confucianism. Confucianism is an inseparable part of the Chinese identity. Whalen Tai, a faculty member at the Department of Religious Studies, University of California at Davis, California makes an interesting observation between Chinese identity and Christianity.
He observes,
There is one underlying cultural link. Chinese Christians might denounce Buddhism and Taoism as pagan and superstitious but not Confucianism. Even in the most Christian of Chinese families – the notable sign of which is the greater egalitarianism between church-going spouses and generally greater freedom for the offsprings – the behavioural patterns are still very much Confucian. There is still a greater sense of filial piety, a greater stress on book learning, familial loyalty, hard work, etc. than in a typical Western counterpart which(Lai 2000,132).
would cultivate greater individuality still, with more physical vigour, personal independence, romantic openness, venturesome traits, etc.
The Chinese psyche is strongly influenced by Confucianism. It is estimated that 90% of Chinese students in Malaysia attends the Chinese School system. This is a separate school system form the National Type Schools run by the government. This school system uses Mandarin as its medium of instruction. Its philosophy of education is strongly influenced by Confucianism. The pedagogy is indoctrination of Confucian values.
Yao Xin Zhong, Chair of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Wales, Lampeter observes, “Many Chinese converts made use of Confucian philosophy and ethics to reformulate Christian ideas.” (Yao 2000, 242). This is true of both Chinese and English speaking Presbyterian Christians, though more marked in Chinese speaking Christians. Confucianism teaches a personal moral code of ethic behaviour that finds the Protestant doctrine of unconditional personal salvation offensive (Chu 2001, 209).
However, there is a great emphasis on building right relationships. The five key relationships in Confucianism are ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend. Chu Sin Jan, associate Professor of History, Chinese university of Taipei, notes,
…their (Chinese Christians) Confucian way of reflecting on Christian theology shows their concern that Christians, in the pursuit of ren, be in relationship to establish their character and other people’s character as well as to live in harmony with each other and with God. Confucian values, not to mention Confucian logic and language greatly color their Christian faith. Their Confucian heritage makes them more concerned about personal and social ethics than anything else(2001, 210)
Therefore Chinese Christian relates more to spiritual formation which involves relationships and community better than to personal salvation. Historian Roxbough notes that, “In Malaysia this is a church which for much of its history has rejected the idea of being Presbyterian in favour of wishing to be Chinese” (Roxbough 1992, 101). The Malaysia Chinese lives in a continuum between two cultures: Chinese and Malaysian. One end is Chineseness and the other end is Malaysian multiculturalism. Where one is on the continuum decides one’s behaviour. Samuel Ling, President of China Horizon and researcher into cultural trends that affect Chinese Churches observes that “the Chinese model is rooted in the traditional Chinese family and clan, which sees adults as the focus, and children as appendages. (Ling and Cheuk 1999,69).
This will have an effect on how Chinese in churches plan for children’s ministries[2]. In traditional Chinese culture, leaders and teachers are to be respected. Hence a pastor’s decision is final and accepted without arguments (Ling and Cheuk 1999)148. Again this will create problems in many churches especially amongst the English educated who sees the pastor as an equal and call him or her by their first name.[3]
Bibliography
Chu, S. J. (2001). Confucianism and Christianity. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House.
Lai, W. (2000). Cultural Confucianism, Cultural Christianity: One Dilemma of the Modernized Chinese. Confucianism in Chinese Culture. H. T. Cheu. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn Bhd: 113-140.
Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Yao, X. Z. (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
Endnotes
[1] This is a very simplified version of a very complex philosophy and ideology. See Confucius (1999). The Analects. Hunan, China, Hunan People's Publishing House. It has often being argued by Confucian scholars that there is no one Confucianism but many; as Confucianism have evolved into different incarnation throughout its thousands of years of Chinese history. See Yao.
[2] Children and Youth ministries are not given much attention in Malaysian Presbyterian churches until recently. What caused a change in focus is the realisation that most youths when they leave their home churches to go to the bigger cities to study do not join Presbyterian churches but churches of other denominations. The solution by the ESP is to form youth orientated churches in the bigger cities. Another area of concern is the role model of fathers in the Chinese culture. Fathers in Chinese culture are often distant, disciplinarians, and business minded. Bishop Ting of China writes, “In fact, the proper Chinese way to refer to one’s own father in polite conversation is the “severe one in my family”…” One wonders how this will affect the perception of the Heavenly Father in the minds of children from these families who became Christian.
[3] These are but two examples of Chinese thinking affecting churches with both Chinese and English educated members. Other examples quoted are evangelism directed to children and not families (p. 142-143), respect for pastors and leaders (p.147-149), and sharing testimonies in public (p.143). Non-Christian families are often unhappy if their children become Christians, respect for leaders and pastors mean not speaking so because to do so is to ‘shame’ them, and for Chinese sharing their ‘achievements’ or giving testimonies in public is taboo (“showing of”, “pride”, “disrespectful”). Ling, S. and C. Cheuk (1999). The "Chinese " Way of Doing Things. Vancouver, China Horizon and Horizon Ministries, Canada.
Thursday, June 28, 2007
Influencers on Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (1)
Influencers of Christian spiritual formation in Malaysia (1)
Malaysian Presbyterian Influence on Spiritual Formation
Note: This is written from a Malaysian Presbyterian point of view and does not represent the official position of the Presbyterian churches of Malaysia.
Denominations is an important context in which to understand spiritual formation in Malaysia. Presbyterianism first came to Malaya when the Dutch captured the trading town of Malacca in 1641. The second wave came with the British colonisation of the Straits Settlement of Singapore, Malacca and Penang. These were Scottish and English Presbyterians who were traders, soldiers and missionaries from mission organisations. One such organisation was the London Missionary Society (Helms), now known as the Council for World Mission (CWM). The third wave came in 1950s, when China closed its door to foreign missionaries and they relocated to Malaya and Singapore. An English Speaking Presbytery (ESP) was formed in 1990. The first two waves are mainly English speaking while the third wave was mainly Chinese speaking. Together with this third wave came missionaries from the Inland China Mission, now called Overseas Chinese Mission (Bloomfield) which “served as the bridge between the two streams[1].”(Roxborogh 2001, 673). The New Zealand Presbyterians have worked closely with the China Inland Mission (Roxborogh 2001, 672). Therefore Presbyterianism in Malaysia was influenced by the Dutch, Scottish, English and New Zealanders but not the Americans Presbyterians.
The influence of Carl McIntyre and John Song caused a church split and the Bible Presbyterian Church was formed. (Roxborough 2001, 672). In Malaysia, Presbyterianism is divided into the Presbyterian Church and the Bible Presbyterian Church.
The Presbyterian mission was strongly involved in education, itinerant evangelism and medical care. (Roxborough 2001, 672). However, its involvement with education is not so extensive as compared to the Methodists, Anglicans, and the Roman Catholic Church. The significance of this Christian involvement in education by building Christian schools is that “in 1950, they educated nearly half the students in the English medium schools in West Malaysia and produced nearly two-thirds of all secondary education in any medium” (Sunquist 2001, 189). The influence of Christian schools decreased after Malaysia became independent in 1957 and the newly appointed government ‘nationalised’ all Christian schools. The Presbyterian Church is still involved in higher education, especially theological education, for example, in Trinity Theological College (TTC) in Singapore[2]. What this strategy produced are churches in Malaysia that values Western education and are English speaking.
Initially the English speaking congregations was to cater for the expatriates. Then as the number of English speaking converts increased, the church demography began to change. St. Andrew Presbyterian Church in Kuala Lumpur still has a large expatriate membership. Holy Light Church (English) is the largest English speaking Presbyterian Church in Malaysia. Its history dates back 125 years to J.A.B. Cook. Cook was called by the Presbyterian Church of England in 1882 to Singapore to lead the Chinese Presbyterian Church after the death of its founder, Benjamin Keasberry (Sng 1993, 104-107). After reforming the church in Singapore, Cook planted a few Chinese speaking churches in Malaya. In Johor Bahru, he was able to get grants of land from the Sultan of Johore through Keasberry’s son-in-law, James Meldrum (Hunt 2001, 215). It is on one such plot of land that Cook started the Holy Light Church (Chinese). In a series of events which will be repeated all over the country, the Chinese speaking congregation started an English speaking service which grew and in time developed into an English speaking church. In this case, Holy Light Church (English) was started and today both the churches occupy the same premises[3].
The tensions between the English speaking and Chinese speaking Presbyterian churches are an influencer in the Malaysian Presbyterian ethos. This sibling rivalry disrupts the harmony in church relationships and provides a bad model of inter-community relationships. The more hierarchical Chinese speaking churches regard their younger English speaking brethrens as disrespectful. Basically it is a conflict of worldviews. Church historian John Roxborogh explains, “The English speaking have already made a break from their home culture and at the same time are in contact with a wider range of Christian thought and activity. Chinese speaking congregations feel that there will be a place for them in Malaysia of the future and believe that English will lose some of its importance.” (Hunt, Lee et al. 1992, 76). One effect of this is that the English speaking congregations are wider in their outlook and look towards the West for ideas, while the Chinese speaking congregations are more inclusive and looks toward Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China.
Though the Synod is the main governing body, Presbyterian churches are by its nature independent, led by ruling and teaching elders. A lot of responsibility was placed on the ruling elder to interpret the Presbyterian/ Reformed ethos. In recent years, many of the pastors do not subscribe fully to Calvinism. Some are also Arminian in their thinking. Most of them are evangelical in their thinking. There is also a charismatic influence in some churches. Obvious this will have some influence the spiritual development of its members.
Another inherited problem is the role of youth and women in church ministries. In some, but not all Malaysian Presbyterian churches, women are not allowed to preach from the pulpit. This problem with the role of women in ministry and leadership were not unique to Malaysian Presbyterians. The Presbyterian Church of the United States (PCUSA) first ordained women elders only in 1920 after years of debates. (Smylie 1996, 113). Four ladies were appointed to the Board of Managers of St. Andrews Presbyterian Church in 1957 (Cummings, 1964). Since then there are some hopeful signs in some churches in Malaysia where some women are being appointed deaconess and elders. Youth are not appointed to be deacon or elder and are often not represented in the upper leadership echelons. In the Presbyterian ethos, youth is not a priority. Again, there are hopeful signs that a few new Presbyterian churches are formed for youths. Concerning the response to the Charismatic revival, Roxborogh comments, “The Charismatic movement influenced many English speaking congregations in the 1970s, but despite pleas for a more pastoral approach the Chinese speaking majority introduced constitutional changes in 1984 requiring that all baptisms be by sprinkling and discouraging speaking in tongues.” (Roxborogh 1992, 99). This reflects the conservatism of the Chinese speaking congregations and their relationship with the English speaking congregations.
Denominational distinctive, while not so important as it once was, is a major influencer in societal corporate spiritual formation. There is not much emphasis on Calvinism and one can be a member of a church for more than 10 years without knowing about Presbyterianism and the Reformed tradition[4]. There is a chapter on Presbyterianism in the baptism class and after that was never mentioned again[5]. The issues of the role of youth, women and of the Holy Spirit need to be addressed because these issues are important in corporate spiritual formation.
Bibliography
Bloomfield, F. (1983). The Book of Chinese Beliefs. London, Arrow Books.
College, T. T. (2006). At the Crossroads: The History of Trinity Theological College 1948-2005. Singapore, C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd.
English-Work-Committee (1977). Christ Our Life: A Communicant's Manual. Kuala Lumpur, Geraja Presbyterian Malaysia and The Presbyterian Church of Singapore.
Helms, H. M., Ed. (1982). Fenelon: The Royal Way of the Cross. Brewster, MA, Paraclete Press.
Hunt, R. (2001). Cook, J.A.B. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans publishing Company: 215.
Hunt, R., K. H. Lee, et al., Eds. (1992). Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd.
Roxborogh, J. (2001). Presbyterian and Reformed Churches. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. EerdmansPublishing Company: 672-675.
Smylie, J. H. (1996). A Brief History of the Presbyterians. Louisville, KN, Geneva Press.
Sng, B. E. K. (1993). In His Good Time. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship.
Sunquist, S. W. (2001). Colleges and Universities. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: 185-191.
Tan, R., Ed. (2002). Holy Light Church (English): 50 Years of Grace (1952-2002). Johor Bahru, Holy Light Church (English).
Trinity-Theological-College (1999). Our Heritage Our Future. Singapore, Armour Publishing Pte Ltd.
Endnotes
[1] The two streams refer to the English speaking and the Chinese speaking Christians. These two streams still exist today. They exist in the same church or in separate churches.
[2] Trinity Theological College started on 4th October 1948 started as a joint venture between “The English Presbyterian, The Church of English and the Methodist Church.” Trinity-Theological-College (1999). Our Heritage Our Future. Singapore, Armour Publishing Pte Ltd. p.30. The idea for an ecumenical theological college were mooted during discussions among Rev. Hobart B. Amstutz (Methodist), Rev.Gidson (Presbyterian), and Canon Adams (Anglican) when the three were interned at Changi Camp during the Japanese Occupation. College, T. T. (2006). At the Crossroads: The History of Trinity Theological College 1948-2005. Singapore, C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd.p.39
[3] It is argued that the initial English speaking service started in Holy Light Church (Chinese) was for the Meldrum family and not truly a church service. This English service was stopped after James Meldrum died. It was revived in 1952 by Rev. Hood and it was claimed that this was the real start of Holy Light Church (English). See Tan, R., Ed. (2002). Holy Light Church (English): 50 Years of Grace (1952-2002). Johor Bahru, Holy Light Church (English). p. 15
[4] Personal communications with members of a few English Speaking Presbyterian churches.
[5] The instruction manual for Baptism classes is English-Work-Committee (1977). Christ Our Life: A Communicant's Manual. Kuala Lumpur, Geraja Presbyterian Malaysia and The Presbyterian Church of Singapore. A personal survey with the pastors and elders of the English Speaking Presbytery revealed that most churches are not using this manual, and are not teaching about Calvinism and the Reformed tradition.
Influencers on Spiritual Formation in Malaysia (1)
Influencers of Christian spiritual formation in Malaysia (1)
Malaysian Presbyterian Influence on Spiritual Formation
Note: This is written from a Malaysian Presbyterian point of view and does not represent the official position of the Presbyterian churches of Malaysia.
Denominations is an important context in which to understand spiritual formation in Malaysia. Presbyterianism first came to Malaya when the Dutch captured the trading town of Malacca in 1641. The second wave came with the British colonisation of the Straits Settlement of Singapore, Malacca and Penang. These were Scottish and English Presbyterians who were traders, soldiers and missionaries from mission organisations. One such organisation was the London Missionary Society (Helms), now known as the Council for World Mission (CWM). The third wave came in 1950s, when China closed its door to foreign missionaries and they relocated to Malaya and Singapore. An English Speaking Presbytery (ESP) was formed in 1990. The first two waves are mainly English speaking while the third wave was mainly Chinese speaking. Together with this third wave came missionaries from the Inland China Mission, now called Overseas Chinese Mission (Bloomfield) which “served as the bridge between the two streams[1].”(Roxborogh 2001, 673). The New Zealand Presbyterians have worked closely with the China Inland Mission (Roxborogh 2001, 672). Therefore Presbyterianism in Malaysia was influenced by the Dutch, Scottish, English and New Zealanders but not the Americans Presbyterians.
The influence of Carl McIntyre and John Song caused a church split and the Bible Presbyterian Church was formed. (Roxborough 2001, 672). In Malaysia, Presbyterianism is divided into the Presbyterian Church and the Bible Presbyterian Church.
The Presbyterian mission was strongly involved in education, itinerant evangelism and medical care. (Roxborough 2001, 672). However, its involvement with education is not so extensive as compared to the Methodists, Anglicans, and the Roman Catholic Church. The significance of this Christian involvement in education by building Christian schools is that “in 1950, they educated nearly half the students in the English medium schools in West Malaysia and produced nearly two-thirds of all secondary education in any medium” (Sunquist 2001, 189). The influence of Christian schools decreased after Malaysia became independent in 1957 and the newly appointed government ‘nationalised’ all Christian schools. The Presbyterian Church is still involved in higher education, especially theological education, for example, in Trinity Theological College (TTC) in Singapore[2]. What this strategy produced are churches in Malaysia that values Western education and are English speaking.
Initially the English speaking congregations was to cater for the expatriates. Then as the number of English speaking converts increased, the church demography began to change. St. Andrew Presbyterian Church in Kuala Lumpur still has a large expatriate membership. Holy Light Church (English) is the largest English speaking Presbyterian Church in Malaysia. Its history dates back 125 years to J.A.B. Cook. Cook was called by the Presbyterian Church of England in 1882 to Singapore to lead the Chinese Presbyterian Church after the death of its founder, Benjamin Keasberry (Sng 1993, 104-107). After reforming the church in Singapore, Cook planted a few Chinese speaking churches in Malaya. In Johor Bahru, he was able to get grants of land from the Sultan of Johore through Keasberry’s son-in-law, James Meldrum (Hunt 2001, 215). It is on one such plot of land that Cook started the Holy Light Church (Chinese). In a series of events which will be repeated all over the country, the Chinese speaking congregation started an English speaking service which grew and in time developed into an English speaking church. In this case, Holy Light Church (English) was started and today both the churches occupy the same premises[3].
The tensions between the English speaking and Chinese speaking Presbyterian churches are an influencer in the Malaysian Presbyterian ethos. This sibling rivalry disrupts the harmony in church relationships and provides a bad model of inter-community relationships. The more hierarchical Chinese speaking churches regard their younger English speaking brethrens as disrespectful. Basically it is a conflict of worldviews. Church historian John Roxborogh explains, “The English speaking have already made a break from their home culture and at the same time are in contact with a wider range of Christian thought and activity. Chinese speaking congregations feel that there will be a place for them in Malaysia of the future and believe that English will lose some of its importance.” (Hunt, Lee et al. 1992, 76). One effect of this is that the English speaking congregations are wider in their outlook and look towards the West for ideas, while the Chinese speaking congregations are more inclusive and looks toward Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China.
Though the Synod is the main governing body, Presbyterian churches are by its nature independent, led by ruling and teaching elders. A lot of responsibility was placed on the ruling elder to interpret the Presbyterian/ Reformed ethos. In recent years, many of the pastors do not subscribe fully to Calvinism. Some are also Arminian in their thinking. Most of them are evangelical in their thinking. There is also a charismatic influence in some churches. Obvious this will have some influence the spiritual development of its members.
Another inherited problem is the role of youth and women in church ministries. In some, but not all Malaysian Presbyterian churches, women are not allowed to preach from the pulpit. This problem with the role of women in ministry and leadership were not unique to Malaysian Presbyterians. The Presbyterian Church of the United States (PCUSA) first ordained women elders only in 1920 after years of debates. (Smylie 1996, 113). Four ladies were appointed to the Board of Managers of St. Andrews Presbyterian Church in 1957 (Cummings, 1964). Since then there are some hopeful signs in some churches in Malaysia where some women are being appointed deaconess and elders. Youth are not appointed to be deacon or elder and are often not represented in the upper leadership echelons. In the Presbyterian ethos, youth is not a priority. Again, there are hopeful signs that a few new Presbyterian churches are formed for youths. Concerning the response to the Charismatic revival, Roxborogh comments, “The Charismatic movement influenced many English speaking congregations in the 1970s, but despite pleas for a more pastoral approach the Chinese speaking majority introduced constitutional changes in 1984 requiring that all baptisms be by sprinkling and discouraging speaking in tongues.” (Roxborogh 1992, 99). This reflects the conservatism of the Chinese speaking congregations and their relationship with the English speaking congregations.
Denominational distinctive, while not so important as it once was, is a major influencer in societal corporate spiritual formation. There is not much emphasis on Calvinism and one can be a member of a church for more than 10 years without knowing about Presbyterianism and the Reformed tradition[4]. There is a chapter on Presbyterianism in the baptism class and after that was never mentioned again[5]. The issues of the role of youth, women and of the Holy Spirit need to be addressed because these issues are important in corporate spiritual formation.
Bibliography
Bloomfield, F. (1983). The Book of Chinese Beliefs. London, Arrow Books.
College, T. T. (2006). At the Crossroads: The History of Trinity Theological College 1948-2005. Singapore, C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd.
English-Work-Committee (1977). Christ Our Life: A Communicant's Manual. Kuala Lumpur, Geraja Presbyterian Malaysia and The Presbyterian Church of Singapore.
Helms, H. M., Ed. (1982). Fenelon: The Royal Way of the Cross. Brewster, MA, Paraclete Press.
Hunt, R. (2001). Cook, J.A.B. A Dictionary of Asia Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans publishing Company: 215.
Hunt, R., K. H. Lee, et al., Eds. (1992). Christianity in Malaysia: A Denominational History. Kuala Lumpur, Pelanduk Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd.
Roxborogh, J. (2001). Presbyterian and Reformed Churches. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. EerdmansPublishing Company: 672-675.
Smylie, J. H. (1996). A Brief History of the Presbyterians. Louisville, KN, Geneva Press.
Sng, B. E. K. (1993). In His Good Time. Singapore, Graduates' Christian Fellowship.
Sunquist, S. W. (2001). Colleges and Universities. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. S. W. Sunquist. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: 185-191.
Tan, R., Ed. (2002). Holy Light Church (English): 50 Years of Grace (1952-2002). Johor Bahru, Holy Light Church (English).
Trinity-Theological-College (1999). Our Heritage Our Future. Singapore, Armour Publishing Pte Ltd.
Endnotes
[1] The two streams refer to the English speaking and the Chinese speaking Christians. These two streams still exist today. They exist in the same church or in separate churches.
[2] Trinity Theological College started on 4th October 1948 started as a joint venture between “The English Presbyterian, The Church of English and the Methodist Church.” Trinity-Theological-College (1999). Our Heritage Our Future. Singapore, Armour Publishing Pte Ltd. p.30. The idea for an ecumenical theological college were mooted during discussions among Rev. Hobart B. Amstutz (Methodist), Rev.Gidson (Presbyterian), and Canon Adams (Anglican) when the three were interned at Changi Camp during the Japanese Occupation. College, T. T. (2006). At the Crossroads: The History of Trinity Theological College 1948-2005. Singapore, C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd.p.39
[3] It is argued that the initial English speaking service started in Holy Light Church (Chinese) was for the Meldrum family and not truly a church service. This English service was stopped after James Meldrum died. It was revived in 1952 by Rev. Hood and it was claimed that this was the real start of Holy Light Church (English). See Tan, R., Ed. (2002). Holy Light Church (English): 50 Years of Grace (1952-2002). Johor Bahru, Holy Light Church (English). p. 15
[4] Personal communications with members of a few English Speaking Presbyterian churches.
[5] The instruction manual for Baptism classes is English-Work-Committee (1977). Christ Our Life: A Communicant's Manual. Kuala Lumpur, Geraja Presbyterian Malaysia and The Presbyterian Church of Singapore. A personal survey with the pastors and elders of the English Speaking Presbytery revealed that most churches are not using this manual, and are not teaching about Calvinism and the Reformed tradition.
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